The song "On Top of Old Smokey" doesn't explicitly say what happened to the meatball that rolled off the table, but it does offer a few possibilities.
One possibility is that the meatball simply rolled away and was lost. This is the most likely outcome, as meatballs are not known for their mobility.
Another possibility is that the meatball was eaten by an animal. A cat, dog, or other creature could have easily snatched up the meatball as it rolled across the floor.
A third possibility is that the meatball simply turned into mush. This is the least likely outcome, but it is possible that the heat and humidity in the kitchen caused the meatball to decompose quickly.
The song also suggests that the meatball may have grown into a tree. This is obviously a metaphorical statement, but it could be interpreted as meaning that the meatball had a lasting impact on the singer. Perhaps the loss of the meatball made the singer realize how precious food is, or perhaps it simply reminded them of a happy time in their childhood.
Ultimately, the fate of the meatball is up to the listener to decide.
Test on the text "The Meatball's Fate"
Multiple choice
What happened to the meatball in the song "On Top of Old Smokey"?
A. It rolled away and was lost.
B. It was eaten by an animal.
C. It turned into mush.
D. It grew into a tree.
E. All of the above.
Which of the following is the most likely outcome for a meatball that rolls off a table?
A. It will roll away and be lost.
B. It will be eaten by an animal.
C. It will turn into mush.
D. It will grow into a tree.
The song suggests that the meatball may have had a lasting impact on the singer. What is one possible interpretation of this?
A. The loss of the meatball made the singer realize how precious food is.
B. The loss of the meatball reminded the singer of a happy time in their childhood.
C. Both of the above.
D. Neither of the above.
True/false
The song "On Top of Old Smokey" explicitly states what happened to the meatball. (False)
Meatballs are known for their mobility. (False)
It is possible for a meatball to grow into a tree. (False)
Short answer
What are some other possible interpretations of the meatball's fate in the song?
Why do you think the singer chose to include the metaphor of the meatball growing into a tree?
Answers
Multiple choice
A
A
C
True/false
False
False
False
Short answer
Some other possible interpretations of the meatball's fate in the song include:
It represents the loss of innocence or childhood.
It represents something that is precious and fleeting.
It represents the power of memory and nostalgia.
The
singer may have chosen to include the metaphor of the meatball growing
into a tree to suggest that the loss of the meatball had a lasting
impact on them. It may also be a way of expressing the singer's hope that even from something negative, something positive can grow.
14And
Hezekiah received the letter from the hand of the messengers, and read
it: and Hezekiah went up unto the house of the LORD, and spread it
before the LORD.
15And Hezekiah prayed unto the LORD, saying,
16O LORD of hosts, God of Israel, that dwellest between the cherubims, thou art the God, even thou alone, of all the kingdoms of the earth: thou hast made heaven and earth.
17Incline
thine ear, O LORD, and hear; open thine eyes, O LORD, and see: and hear
all the words of Sennacherib, which hath sent to reproach the living
God.
18Of a truth, LORD, the kings of Assyria have laid waste all the nations, and their countries,
19And have cast their gods into the fire: for they were no gods, but the work of men's hands, wood and stone: therefore they have destroyed them.
20Now therefore, O LORD our God, save us from his hand, that all the kingdoms of the earth may know that thou art the LORD, even thou only.
1And it came to pass, when king Hezekiah heard it, that he rent his clothes, and covered himself with sackcloth, and went into the house of the LORD.
2And he sent Eliakim, who was
over the household, and Shebna the scribe, and the elders of the
priests covered with sackcloth, unto Isaiah the prophet the son of Amoz.
3And they said unto him, Thus saith Hezekiah, This day is a day of trouble, and of rebuke, and of blasphemy: for the children are come to the birth, and there is not strength to bring forth.
4It
may be the LORD thy God will hear the words of Rabshakeh, whom the king
of Assyria his master hath sent to reproach the living God, and will
reprove the words which the LORD thy God hath heard: wherefore lift up thy prayer for the remnant that is left.
5So the servants of king Hezekiah came to Isaiah.
6And
Isaiah said unto them, Thus shall ye say unto your master, Thus saith
the LORD, Be not afraid of the words that thou hast heard, wherewith the
servants of the king of Assyria have blasphemed me.
7Behold,
I will send a blast upon him, and he shall hear a rumour, and return to
his own land; and I will cause him to fall by the sword in his own
land.
8So
Rabshakeh returned, and found the king of Assyria warring against
Libnah: for he had heard that he was departed from Lachish.
9And he heard say concerning Tirhakah king of Ethiopia, He is come forth to make war with thee. And when he heard it, he sent messengers to Hezekiah, saying,
10Thus
shall ye speak to Hezekiah king of Judah, saying, Let not thy God, in
whom thou trustest, deceive thee, saying, Jerusalem shall not be given
into the hand of the king of Assyria.
11Behold,
thou hast heard what the kings of Assyria have done to all lands by
destroying them utterly; and shalt thou be delivered?
12Have the gods of the nations delivered them which my fathers have destroyed, as Gozan, and Haran, and Rezeph, and the children of Eden which were in Telassar?
13Where is the king of Hamath, and the king of Arphad, and the king of the city of Sepharvaim, Hena, and Ivah?
Hezekiah's Prayer
14And
Hezekiah received the letter from the hand of the messengers, and read
it: and Hezekiah went up unto the house of the LORD, and spread it
before the LORD.
15And Hezekiah prayed unto the LORD, saying,
16O LORD of hosts, God of Israel, that dwellest between the cherubims, thou art the God, even thou alone, of all the kingdoms of the earth: thou hast made heaven and earth.
17Incline
thine ear, O LORD, and hear; open thine eyes, O LORD, and see: and hear
all the words of Sennacherib, which hath sent to reproach the living
God.
18Of a truth, LORD, the kings of Assyria have laid waste all the nations, and their countries,
19And have cast their gods into the fire: for they were no gods, but the work of men's hands, wood and stone: therefore they have destroyed them.
20Now therefore, O LORD our God, save us from his hand, that all the kingdoms of the earth may know that thou art the LORD, even thou only.
The Fall of Sennacherib
21Then
Isaiah the son of Amoz sent unto Hezekiah, saying, Thus saith the LORD
God of Israel, Whereas thou hast prayed to me against Sennacherib king
of Assyria:
22This is the word which the LORD hath spoken concerning him; The virgin, the daughter of Zion, hath despised thee, and laughed thee to scorn; the daughter of Jerusalem hath shaken her head at thee.
23Whom hast thou reproached and blasphemed? and against whom hast thou exalted thy voice, and lifted up thine eyes on high? even against the Holy One of Israel.
24By
thy servants hast thou reproached the Lord, and hast said, By the
multitude of my chariots am I come up to the height of the mountains, to
the sides of Lebanon; and I will cut down the tall cedars thereof, and the choice fir trees thereof: and I will enter into the height of his border, and the forest of his Carmel.
25I have digged, and drunk water; and with the sole of my feet have I dried up all the rivers of the besieged places.
26Hast thou not heard long ago, how I have done it; and of ancient times, that I have formed it? now have I brought it to pass, that thou shouldest be to lay waste defenced cities into ruinous heaps.
27Therefore their inhabitants were of small power, they were dismayed and confounded: they were as the grass of the field, and as the green herb, as the grass on the housetops, and as corn blasted before it be grown up.
28But I know thy abode, and thy going out, and thy coming in, and thy rage against me.
29Because
thy rage against me, and thy tumult, is come up into mine ears,
therefore will I put my hook in thy nose, and my bridle in thy lips, and
I will turn thee back by the way by which thou camest.
30And this shall be a sign unto thee, Ye shall eat this
year such as groweth of itself; and the second year that which
springeth of the same: and in the third year sow ye, and reap, and plant
vineyards, and eat the fruit thereof.
31And the remnant that is escaped of the house of Judah shall again take root downward, and bear fruit upward:
32For
out of Jerusalem shall go forth a remnant, and they that escape out of
mount Zion: the zeal of the LORD of hosts shall do this.
33Therefore
thus saith the LORD concerning the king of Assyria, He shall not come
into this city, nor shoot an arrow there, nor come before it with
shields, nor cast a bank against it.
34By the way that he came, by the same shall he return, and shall not come into this city, saith the LORD.
35For I will defend this city to save it for mine own sake, and for my servant David's sake.
The Assyrian Camp Destroyed
36Then
the angel of the LORD went forth, and smote in the camp of the
Assyrians a hundred and fourscore and five thousand: and when they arose
early in the morning, behold, they were all dead corpses.
37So Sennacherib king of Assyria departed, and went and returned, and dwelt at Nineveh.
38And
it came to pass, as he was worshipping in the house of Nisroch his god,
that Adrammelech and Sharezer his sons smote him with the sword; and
they escaped into the land of Armenia: and Esarhaddon his son reigned in
his stead.
The Sennacherib Letter is a letter that was written by Sennacherib, king of Assyria, to Hezekiah, king of Judah, in the seventh century BC. The letter is recorded in the Bible, in both 2 Kings and Isaiah.
In the letter, Sennacherib boasts about his military victories and threatens to destroy Jerusalem. He also mocks Hezekiah's trust in God, saying that God is no more powerful than the gods of other nations that the Assyrians have defeated.
The Sennacherib Letter is a significant historical document because it provides a firsthand account of the Assyrian invasion of Judah and Sennacherib's siege of Jerusalem. It also sheds light on the religious beliefs of the Assyrians and the Judahites.
Analysis of the Sennacherib Letter
The Sennacherib Letter is a complex and nuanced document. On the one hand, it is a propaganda piece designed to intimidate Hezekiah and the people of Jerusalem. On the other hand, it also reveals Sennacherib's own insecurities and fears.
Sennacherib begins the letter by boasting about his military victories. He claims to have conquered all of the nations that he has invaded, and he says that no one can stand against him. He also claims that his gods are more powerful than the gods of any other nation.
Sennacherib then turns his attention to Hezekiah and the people of Jerusalem. He mocks Hezekiah's trust in God and threatens to destroy Jerusalem if Hezekiah does not surrender. He also says that God is no more powerful than the gods of other nations that the Assyrians have defeated.
The Sennacherib Letter is a reminder that the world is often a dangerous and unpredictable place. It is also a reminder that we should not put our trust in human power or wealth, but in God alone.
Biblical significance of the Sennacherib Letter
The Sennacherib Letter is significant in the Bible because it is a story of God's deliverance of his people from their enemies. The Assyrians were a powerful and ruthless empire, and they seemed unstoppable. However, Hezekiah and the people of Jerusalem trusted in God, and God answered their prayers by destroying the Assyrian army.
The Sennacherib Letter is a reminder that God is faithful to his people and that he will deliver them from their enemies. It is also a reminder that God is more powerful than any human enemy.
Hezekiah (/ˌhɛzɪˈkaɪ.ə/; Biblical Hebrew: חִזְקִיָּהוּ, romanized: Ḥīzqīyyahū), or Ezekias[c] (born c. 741 BCE, sole ruler c. 716/15–687/86), was the son of Ahaz and the 13th king of Judah according to the Hebrew Bible.[2]
Hezekiah enacted sweeping religious reforms, including a strict mandate for the sole worship of Yahweh and a prohibition on venerating other deities within the Temple of Jerusalem.[2] He is considered a very righteous king in both the Second Book of Kings and the Second Book of Chronicles.[4] He is also one of the more prominent kings of Judah mentioned in the Bible and is one of the kings mentioned in the genealogy of Jesus in the Gospel of Matthew.[5] "No king of Judah, among either his predecessors or his successors, could [...] be compared to him", according to 2 Kings 18:5.[6]Isaiah and Micah prophesied during his reign.[2]
Etymology
The name Hezekiah means "Yahweh strengthens" in Hebrew.[7] Alternately it may be translated as "Yahweh is my strength".[8]
Biblical sources
The main biblical accounts of Hezekiah's reign are found in 2 Kings,[9] Isaiah,[10] and 2 Chronicles.[11] Proverbs 25:1 commences a collection of King Solomon's proverbs which were "copied by the officials of King Hezekiah of Judah".[12] His reign is also referred to in the books of the prophets Jeremiah, Hosea, Micah, and Isaiah.
The books of Hosea and Micah record that their prophecies were made
during Hezekiah's reign. The book of Isaiah records when Hezekiah sought
Isaiah's help when Judah was under siege by King Sennacherib of Assyria.[13]
Dates
Based on Edwin Thiele's dating, Hezekiah was born in c. 741 BCE and died in c. 687 BCE at age 54. Thiele and William F. Albright calculated his regnal years arriving at figures very close to each other, c. 715/16 and 686/87 BCE.[14][15] However, Robb Andrew Young dates his reign to 725–696 BCE[16] and Gershon Galil to 726–697/6.[17]
Family and life
Hezekiah was the son of king Ahaz and Abijah. His mother, Abijah (also called Abi),[6] was a daughter of the high priest Zechariah. He was married to Hephzibah.[18] He died from natural causes at the age of 54 in c. 687 BCE, and was succeeded by his son Manasseh.[19]
Reign over Judah
Remnants of the Broad Wall of biblical Jerusalem, built during Hezekiah's days against Sennacherib's siege
According to the biblical narrative, Hezekiah assumed the throne of Judah at the age of 25 and reigned for 29 years.[20] Some writers[who?] have proposed that Hezekiah served as coregent
with his father Ahaz for about 14 years. His sole reign is dated by
Albright as 715–687 BCE, and by Thiele as 716–687 BCE (the last ten
years being a co-regency with his son Manasseh).[15]
Restoration of the Temple
According to the Bible, Hezekiah purified and repaired the Temple, purged its idols, and reformed the priesthood.[21] In an effort to abolish idolatry from his kingdom, he destroyed the high places (or bamot) and the "bronze serpent" (or Nehushtan), recorded as being made by Moses,
which had become objects of idolatrous worship. In place of this, he
centralized the worship of God at the Temple in Jerusalem. Hezekiah also
defeated the Philistines, "as far as Gaza and its territory",[22] and resumed the Passover pilgrimage and the tradition of inviting the scattered tribes of Israel to take part in a Passover festival.
2 Chronicles 30 (but not the parallel account in 2 Kings) records that Hezekiah sent messengers to Ephraim and Manasseh
inviting them to Jerusalem for the celebration of the Passover. The
messengers, however, were not only not listened to, but were even
laughed at, although a few men of the tribes of Asher, Manasseh and Zebulun "were humble enough to come" to the city.[23]
According to the biblical account, the Passover was celebrated with
great solemnity and such rejoicing as had not been seen in Jerusalem
since the days of Solomon.[6] The celebration took place during the second month, Iyar, because not enough priests had consecrated themselves in the first month.
Biblical writer H. P. Mathys suggests that Hezekiah, being unable to restore the union of Judah and Israel
by political means, used the invitation to the northern tribes as a
final religious "attempt to restore the unity of the cult". He also
notes that this account "is often considered to contain historically
reliable elements, especially since negative aspects are also reported
on", although he questions the full extent to which it may be considered
historically reliable.[24]
After the death of Assyrian king Sargon II in 705 BCE, Sargon's son Sennacherib
became king of Assyria. In 703 BCE, Sennacherib began a series of major
campaigns to quash opposition to Assyrian rule, starting with cities in
the eastern part of the realm. In 701 BCE, Sennacherib turned toward
cities in the west. Hezekiah then had to face the invasion of Judah.
According to the Bible, Hezekiah did not rely on Egypt for support, but
relied on God and prayed to Him for deliverance of his capital city
Jerusalem.[25]
The Assyrians recorded that Sennacherib lifted his siege of
Jerusalem after Hezekiah paid Sennacherib tribute. The Bible records
that Hezekiah paid him three hundred talents of silver and thirty of gold as tribute, even sending the doors of the Temple to produce the promised amount, but, even after the payment was made, Sennacherib renewed his assault on Jerusalem.[26] Sennacherib surrounded the city and sent his Rabshakeh to the walls as a messenger. The Rabshakeh addressed the soldiers manning the city wall in Hebrew (Yehudith), asking them to distrust Yahweh and Hezekiah, claiming that Hezekiah's righteous reforms (destroying the idols and High Places) were a sign that the people should not trust their god to be favorably disposed.[27] 2 Kings records that Hezekiah went to the Temple and there he prayed to God.[28]
Knowing that Jerusalem would eventually be subject to siege, Hezekiah
had been preparing for some time by fortifying the walls of the
capital, building towers, and constructing a tunnel to bring fresh water
to the city from a spring outside its walls.[21] He made at least two major preparations that would help Jerusalem to resist conquest: the construction of the Siloam Tunnel, and construction of the Broad Wall.
Sennacherib was intent on making war against Jerusalem. Therefore
Hezekiah consulted with his officers about stopping the flow of the
springs outside the city. Otherwise, they thought, the King of Assyria
would come and find water in abundance.[29]
According to the biblical record, Sennacherib sent threatening
letters warning Hezekiah that he had not desisted from his determination
to take the Judean capital.[31]
Although they besieged Jerusalem, the biblical accounts state that the
Assyrians did not so much as "shoot an arrow there, ... nor cast up a
siege rampart against it", and that God sent out an angel who, in one
night, struck down "a hundred and eighty-five thousand in the camp of
the Assyrians," sending Sennacherib back "with shame of face to his own
land".[32]
Sennacherib's inscriptions make no mention of the disaster suffered by his forces. But, as Professor Jack Finegan
comments: "In view of the general note of boasting which pervades the
inscriptions of the Assyrian kings, ... it is hardly to be expected that
Sennacherib would record such a defeat."[33] The version of the matter that Sennacherib presents, as found inscribed on what is known as the Sennacherib Prism preserved in the University of Chicago Oriental Institute,
in part says: "As to Hezekiah, the Jew, he did not submit to my yoke
... Hezekiah himself ... did send me, later, to Nineveh, my lordly city,
together with 30 talents of gold, 800 talents of silver, ..."[34]
This version inflates the number of silver talents sent from 300 to
800; but in other regards it confirms the biblical record and shows that
Sennacherib made no claim that he captured Jerusalem. However,
Sennacherib presents the matter of Hezekiah's paying tribute as having
come after the Assyrian threat of a siege against Jerusalem, whereas the
Bible states it was paid before.
The Flight of Adrammelech, biblical illustration by Arthur Murch
Of Sennacherib's death, 2 Kings records:
"It came about as he was worshiping in the house of
Nisroch his god, that Adrammelech and Sharezer killed him [Sennacherib]
with the sword; and they escaped into the land of Ararat. And Esarhaddon
his son became king in his place."[37]
According to Assyrian records, Sennacherib was assassinated in 681 BCE, twenty years after the 701 BCE invasion of Judah.[38]
A Neo-Babylonian letter corroborates with the biblical account a
sentiment from Sennacherib's sons to assassinate him, an event Assyriologists have reconstructed as historical. The son Arda-Mulissu,
who is mentioned in the letter as killing anyone who would reveal his
conspiracy, successfully murders his father in c. 681 BCE,[39] and was most likely the Adrammelech in 2 Kings, though Sharezer is not known elsewhere.[40]
Assyriologists posit the murder was motivated because Esarhaddon was
chosen as heir to the throne instead of Arda-Mulissu, the next eldest
son. Assyrian and Hebrew biblical history corroborate that Esarhaddon
ultimately did succeed the throne. Other Assyriologists assert that
Sennacherib was murdered in revenge for his destruction of Babylon, a
city sacred to all Mesopotamians, including the Assyrians.[41]
Hezekiah's illness and recovery
Hezekiah showing off his wealth to envoys of the Babylonian king, oil on canvas by Vicente López Portaña, 1789
Later in his life, Hezekiah was ill with a boil[42] or an inflammation.[43]
Isaiah told him that the Lord said he should put his house in order
because he would die. But Hezekiah prayed, and Isaiah returned saying
that the Lord had heard his prayer and he would recover. Hezekiah asked
for a sign, and Isaiah asked him whether the shadow should go forward
ten degrees or go back ten degrees. Hezekiah said it should go back, and
the account states, "Isaiah the prophet cried unto the LORD: and he
brought the shadow ten degrees backward, by which it had gone down in
the dial of Ahaz." The narrative of his sickness and miraculous recovery is found in 2 Kings, 2 Chronicles and Isaiah.[44]
Various ambassadors came to congratulate him on his recovery,[45] among them from Merodach-baladan, son of the king of Babylon, "for he had heard that Hezekiah had been sick".[46] Hezekiah, his vanity flattered by the visit,[47] showed the Babylonian embassy all the wealth, arms and stores of Jerusalem, revealing too much information to Baladan,
king of Babylon (or perhaps boasting about his wealth). He was then
confronted by Isaiah, who foretold that a future generation of the
people of Judah would be taken as captives to Babylon. Hezekiah was reassured that his own lifetime would see peace and security.[48]
According to Isaiah, Hezekiah lived another 15 years after praying to God.[49] His son and successor, Manasseh, was born during this time: he was 12 years of age when he succeeded Hezekiah.[50]
According to the Talmud,
the disease came about because of a dispute between him and Isaiah over
who should pay whom a visit and over Hezekiah's refusal to marry and
have children, although in the end he married Isaiah's daughter. Some Talmudists
also considered that it might have come about as a way for Hezekiah to
purge his sins or due to his arrogance in assuming his righteousness.[6]
Extra-biblical records
Stamped bulla of King Hezekiah; "Of Hezekiah (son of) Ahaz King of Judah"; unprovenanced, Israel Museum
Extra-biblical sources specify Hezekiah by name, along with his reign
and influence. "Historiographically, his reign is noteworthy for the
convergence of a variety of biblical sources and diverse extrabiblical
evidence often bearing on the same events. Significant data concerning
Hezekiah appear in the Deuteronomistic History, the Chronicler, Isaiah, Assyrian annals and reliefs, Israelite epigraphy, and, increasingly, stratigraphy".[51] Archaeologist Amihai Mazar
calls the tensions between Assyria and Judah "one of the
best-documented events of the Iron Age" (172). Hezekiah's story is one
of the best to cross-reference with the rest of the Mid Eastern world's
historical documents.[citation needed]
Archaeological record
Cuneiform Inscription mentioning in detail the tribute sent by Hezekiah, king of Judah, to Sennacherib. The British Museum
A lintel inscription, found over the doorway of a tomb, has been ascribed to his secretary, Shebnah.[52]
Storage jars with the so-called "LMLK seal"
may "demonstrate careful preparations to counter Sennacherib's likely
route of invasion" and show "a notable degree of royal control of towns
and cities which would facilitate Hezekiah's destruction of rural
sacrificial sites and his centralization of worship in Jerusalem".[51] Evidence suggests they were used throughout his 29-year reign.[53]
There are some bullae from sealed documents that may have belonged to Hezekiah himself.[54]
In 2015, Eilat Mazardiscovered a bulla that bears an inscription in ancient Hebrew script that translates as: "Belonging to Hezekiah [son of] Ahaz king of Judah."[55] This is the first seal impression of an Israelite or Judean king to come to light in a scientific archaeological excavation.[56]
While another, unprovenanced bulla of King Hezekiah was known, this was
the first time a seal impression of Hezekiah had been discovered in situ in the course of actual excavations.[57] Archaeological findings like the Hezekiah seal led scholars to surmise that the ancient Judahite kingdom had a highly developed administrative system.[58]
In 2018 Mazar published a report discussing the discovery of a bulla
which she says may have to have belonged to Isaiah. She believes the
fragment to have been part of a seal whose complete text might have read
"Belonging to Isaiah the prophet."[59] Several other biblical archaeologists, including George Washington University's Christopher Rollston have pointed to the bulla being incomplete, and the present inscription not enough to necessarily refer to the biblical figure.[60]
Increase in the power of Judah
According
to the work of archaeologists and philologists, the reign of Hezekiah
saw a notable increase in the power of the Judean state. At this time
Judah was the strongest nation on the Assyrian–Egyptian frontier.[61]
There were increases in literacy and in the production of literary
works. The massive construction of the Broad Wall was made during his
reign, the city was enlarged to accommodate a large influx, and
population increased in Jerusalem up to 25,000, "five times the
population under Solomon."[51] Archaeologist Amihai Mazar
explains, "Jerusalem was a virtual city-state where the majority of the
state's population was concentrated," in comparison to the rest of
Judah's cities (167).[62] Archaeologist Israel Finkelstein
says, "The key phenomenon—which cannot be explained solely against the
background of economic prosperity—was the sudden growth of the
population of Jerusalem in particular, and of Judah in general" (153).[62] He says the cause of this growth must be a large influx of Israelites fleeing from the Assyrian destruction of the northern state. It is "[t]he only reasonable way to explain this unprecedented demographic development" (154).[62]
This, according to Finkelstein, set the stage for motivations to
compile and reconcile Hebrew history into a text at that time (157).[62] Mazar questions this explanation, since, she argues, it is "no more than an educated guess" (167).[62]
The Siloam Tunnel was chiseled through 533 meters (1,750 feet) of solid rock[40] in order to provide Jerusalem underground access to the waters of the Gihon Spring or Siloam Pool, which lay outside the city.
The Siloam Inscription from the Siloam Tunnel is now in the Istanbul Archaeology Museum.
It "commemorates the dramatic moment when the two original teams of
tunnelers, digging with picks from opposite ends of the tunnel, met each
other" (564).[40] It is "[o]ne of the most important ancient Hebrew inscriptions ever discovered."[40] Finkelstein and Mazar cite this tunnel as an example of Jerusalem's impressive state-level power at the time.
Archaeologists like William G. Dever have pointed at archaeological evidence for the iconoclasm during the period of Hezekiah's reign.[63] The central cult room of the temple at Arad
(a royal Judean fortress) was deliberately and carefully dismantled,
"with the altars and massebot" concealed "beneath a Str. 8 plaster
floor". This stratum
correlates with the late 8th century; Dever concludes that "the
deliberate dismantling of the temple and its replacement by another
structure in the days of Hezekiah is an archeological fact. I see no
reason for skepticism here."[64]
Lachish relief
Part of the Lachish Relief, British Museum. Battle scene, showing Assyrian cavalry in action. Above, prisoners are led away.
Under Rehoboam, Lachish became the second-most important city of the kingdom of Judah. During the revolt of king Hezekiah against Assyria, it was captured by Sennacherib despite determined resistance (see Siege of Lachish).
As the Lachish relief attests, Sennacherib began his siege of the city of Lachish in 701 BCE.[65]
The Lachish Relief graphically depicts the battle, and the defeat of
the city, including Assyrian archers marching up a ramp and Judahites
pierced through on mounted stakes. "The reliefs on these slabs"
discovered in the Assyrian palace at Nineveh "originally formed a
single, continuous work, measuring 8 feet ... tall by 80 feet ... long,
which wrapped around the room" (559).[40]
Visitors "would have been impressed not only by the magnitude of the
artwork itself but also by the magnificent strength of the Assyrian war
machine."[40]
Six-sided clay prism containing narratives of Sennacherib's military campaigns, Oriental Institute Museum of Chicago University
Sennacherib's Prism was found buried in the foundations of the Nineveh palace. It was written in cuneiform, the Mesopotamian form of writing of the day. The prism records the conquest of 46 strong towns[66]
and "uncountable smaller places," along with the siege of Jerusalem
where Sennacherib says he just "shut him up ... like a bird in a cage,"[40] subsequently enforcing a larger tribute upon him.
The Hebrew Bible states that during the night, the angel of YHWH (Hebrew: יהוה) brought death to 185,000 Assyrians troops,[67]
forcing the army to abandon the siege, yet it also records a tribute
paid to Sennacherib of 300 silver talents following the siege. There is
no account of the supernatural event in the prism. Sennacherib's account
records his levying of a tribute from Hezekiah, a payment of 800 silver
talents, which suggests a capitulation to end the siege. However,
inscriptions have been discovered describing Sennacherib's defeat of the
Ethiopian forces. These say: "As to Hezekiah, the Jew, he did not
submit to my yoke, I laid siege to 46 of his strong cities ... and
conquered (them). ... Himself I made a prisoner in Jerusalem, his royal
residence, like a bird in a cage."[68]
He does not claim to have captured the city. This is consistent with
the Bible account of Hezekiah's revolt against Assyria in the sense that
neither account seems to indicate that Sennacherib ever entered or
formally captured the city. Sennacherib in this inscription claims that
Hezekiah paid for tribute 800 talents of silver, in contrast with the
Bible's 300, however this could be due to boastful exaggeration which
was not uncommon amongst kings of the period. Furthermore, the annals[specify] record a list of booty sent from Jerusalem to Nineveh.[69]
In the inscription, Sennacherib claims that Hezekiah accepted
servitude, and some theorize that Hezekiah remained on his throne as a
vassal ruler.[70] The campaign is recorded with differences in the Assyrian records and in the biblical Books of Kings; there is agreement that the Assyrian have a propensity for exaggeration.[40][71]
One theory that takes the biblical view posits that a defeat was caused by "possibly an outbreak of the bubonic plague".[72] Another that this is a composite text which makes use of a 'legendary motif' analogous to that of the Exodus story.[73]
Where the 2 Kings account explains giving 300 talents of silver, Sennacherib's prism records 800 talents.[40]
"This discrepancy may be the result of differences in the weight of
Assyrian and Israelite silver talents, or it may simply be due to the
Assyrian propensity for exaggeration" (558).[40]
Other records
The Greek historian Herodotus
(c. 484 BCE – c. 425 BCE) wrote of the invasion and acknowledges many
Assyrian deaths, which he claims were the result of a plague of mice.
The Jewish historian Josephus followed the writings of Herodotus.[51] These historians record Sennacherib's failure to take Jerusalem as "uncontested".[51]
The Talmud (Bava Batra 15a) credits Hezekiah with overseeing the
compilation of the biblical books of Isaiah, Proverbs, Song of Songs and
Ecclesiastes.
According to Jewish tradition, the victory over the Assyrians and
Hezekiah's return to health happened at the same time, the first night
of Passover.
Abi saved the life of her son Hezekiah, whom her godless husband, Ahaz, had designed as an offering to Moloch. By anointing him with the blood of the salamander, she enabled him to pass through the fire of Moloch unscathed (Sanh. 63b).[74]
Hezekiah is considered as the model of those who put their trust
in the Lord. Only during his sickness did he waver in his hitherto
unshaken trust and require a sign, for which he was blamed by Isaiah
(Lam. R. i.). The Hebrew name "Ḥizḳiyyah" is considered by the
Talmudists to be a surname, meaning either "strengthened by Yhwh" or "he
who made a firm alliance between the Israelites and Yhwh"; his eight
other names are enumerated in Isa. ix. 5 (Sanh. 94a). He is called the
restorer of the study of the Law in the schools, and is said to have
planted a sword at the door of the bet ha-midrash, declaring that he who would not study the Law should be struck with the weapon (ib. 94b).
Hezekiah's piety, which, according to the Talmudists, alone
occasioned the destruction of the Assyrian army and the signal
deliverance of the Israelites when Jerusalem was attacked by
Sennacherib, caused him to be considered by some as the Messiah (ib.
99a). According to Bar Kappara,
Hezekiah was destined to be the Messiah, but the attribute of justice
("middat ha-din") protested against this, saying that as David, who sang
so much the glory of God, had not been made the Messiah, still less
should Hezekiah, for whom so many miracles had been performed, yet who
did not sing the praise of God (ib. 94a).
Menachot 109b tells of Hezekiah encouraging others to keep their faith:
לאחר מפלתו של סנחריב יצא חזקיה ומצא בני מלכים שהיו יושבין בקרונות של זהב הדירו שלא לעבוד עבודת כוכבים
"After the fall of Sancheriv, Hezekiah encountered princes sitting in
golden wagons [presumably the rich folks getting out of town] he made
them promise not to worship stars [i.e., not to engage in idolatry]".
Hezekiah
in two scenes: on the left, Isaiah addresses Hezekiah on his deathbed;
on the right, healed Hezekiah prays to God with the personification of
prayer (προσευχή). Paris Psalter, f. 446v.
Hezekiah's dangerous illness was caused by the discord between him
and Isaiah, each of whom desired that the other should pay him the first
visit. In order to reconcile them God struck Hezekiah with a malady and
ordered Isaiah to visit the sick king. Isaiah told the latter that he
would die, and that his soul also would perish because he had not
married and had thus neglected the commandment to perpetuate the human
species. Hezekiah did not despair, however, holding to the principle
that one must always have recourse to prayer. He finally married
Isaiah's daughter, who bore him Manasseh.[75]
However, in Gen. R. lxv. 4, as quoted in Yalḳ., II Kings, 243, it is
said that Hezekiah prayed for illness and for recovery in order that he
might be warned and be able to repent of his sins. He was thus the first
who recovered from illness. But in his prayer he was rather arrogant,
praising himself; and this resulted in the banishment of his
descendants.[76]
R. Levi said that Hezekiah's words, "and I have done what is good in
thy eyes" (II Kings xx. 3), refer to his concealing a book of healing.
According to the Talmudists, Hezekiah did six things, of which three
agreed with the dicta of the Rabbis and three disagreed therewith.[77]
The first three were these: (1) he concealed the book of healing
because people, instead of praying to God, relied on medical
prescriptions; (2) he broke in pieces the brazen serpent (see Biblical
Data, above); and (3) he dragged his father's remains on a pallet,
instead of giving them kingly burial. The second three were: (1)
stopping the water of Gihon; (2) cutting the gold from the doors of the
Temple; and (3) celebrating the Passover in the second month.[78]
The question that puzzled Heinrich Ewald[79]
and others, "Where was the brazen serpent till the time of Hezekiah?"
occupied the Talmudists also. They answered it in a very simple way: Asa
and Joshaphat, when clearing away the idols, purposely left the brazen
serpent behind, in order that Hezekiah might also be able to do a
praiseworthy deed in breaking it.[80]
The Midrash reconciles the two different narratives[81]
of Hezekiah's conduct at the time of Sennacherib's invasion (see
Biblical Data, above). It says that Hezekiah prepared three means of
defense: prayer, presents, and war,[82]
so that the two Biblical statements complement each other. The reason
why Hezekiah's display of his treasures to the Babylonian ambassadors
aroused the anger of God[83]
was that Hezekiah opened before them the Ark, showing them the tablets
of the covenant, and saying, "It is with this that we are victorious".[84]
Notwithstanding Hezekiah's immense riches, his meal consisted only of a pound of vegetables.[85]
The honor accorded to him after death consisted, according to R. Judah,
in his bier being preceded by 36,000 men whose shoulders were bare in
sign of mourning. According to R. Nehemiah, a scroll of the Law was
placed on Hezekiah's bier. Another statement is that a yeshibah was
established on his grave—for three days, according to some: for seven,
according to others; or for thirty, according to a third authority.[86]
The Talmudists attribute to Hezekiah the redaction of the books of
Isaiah, Proverbs, Song of Solomon, and Ecclesiastes (B. B. 15a).[87]
Chronological interpretation
Understanding
the biblically recorded sequence of events in Hezekiah's life as
chronological or not is critical to the contextual interpretation of his
reign. According to scholar Stephen L. Harris, chapter 20 of 2 Kings does not follow the events of chapters 18 and 19 (161).[88]
Rather, the Babylonian envoys precede the Assyrian invasion and siege.
Chapter 20 would have been added during the exile, and Harris says it
"evidently took place before Sennacherib's invasion' when Hezekiah was
"trying to recruit Babylon as an ally against Assyria.'[88] Consequently, "Hezekiah ends his long reign impoverished and ruling over only a tiny scrap of his former domain.'[88] Likewise, The Archaeological Study Bible
says, "The presence of these riches' that Hezekiah shows to the
Babylonians "indicates that this event took place before Hezekiah's
payment of tribute to Sennacherib in 701 BC" (564).[40]
Again, "Though the king's illness and the subsequent Babylonian mission
are described at the end of the accounts of his reign, they must have
occurred before the war with Assyria.[65]
Thus, Isaiah's chastening of Hezekiah is due to his alliances made with
other countries during the Assyrian conflict for insurance. To a reader
who interprets the chapters chronologically, it would appear that
Hezekiah ended his reign at a climax, but with a scholarly analysis, his
end would contrarily be interpreted as a long fall from where he
began".[citation needed]
Other chronological notes
There
has been considerable academic debate about the actual dates of reigns
of the Israelite kings. Scholars have endeavored to synchronize the
chronology of events referred to in the Hebrew Bible
with those derived from other external sources. In the case of
Hezekiah, scholars have noted that the apparent inconsistencies are
resolved by accepting the evidence that Hezekiah, like his predecessors
for four generations in the kings of Judah, had a coregency with his
father, and this coregency began in 729 BCE.
As an example of the reasoning that finds inconsistencies in calculations when coregencies are a priori ruled out,[89] dates the fall of Samaria
(the Northern Kingdom) to the 6th year of Hezekiah's reign. Albright
has dated the fall of the Kingdom of Israel to 721 BCE, while Thiele
calculates the date as 723 BCE.[90]
If Abright's or Thiele's dating are correct, then Hezekiah's reign
would begin in either 729 or 727 BCE. On the other hand, 2 Kings 18:13[91]
states that Sennacherib invaded Judah in the 14th year of Hezekiah's
reign. Dating based on Assyrian records date this invasion to 701 BCE,
and Hezekiah's reign would therefore begin in 716/715 BCE.[92]
This dating would be confirmed by the account of Hezekiah's illness in
chapter 20, which immediately follows Sennacherib's departure.[93] This would date his illness to Hezekiah's 14th year, which is confirmed by Isaiah's statement[94]
that he will live fifteen more years (29 − 15 = 14). As shown below,
these problems are all addressed by scholars who make reference to the
ancient Near Eastern practice of coregency.
Following the approach of Wellhausen,
another set of calculations shows it is probable that Hezekiah did not
ascend the throne before 722 BCE. By Albright's calculations, Jehu's
initial year is 842 BCE (120 years earlier), but between that and
Samaria's destruction the total number of years of the kings of Israel
in II Kings is 143 7/12, while for the kings of Judah the number
is 165. This discrepancy, amounting in the case of Judah to 45 years
(165–120), has been accounted for in various ways; but every one of
those theories must allow that Hezekiah's first six years fell before
722 BCE. (That Hezekiah began to reign before 722 BCE, however, is
entirely consistent with the principle that the Ahaz/Hezekiah coregency
began in 729 BCE.) Nor is it clearly known how old Hezekiah was when
called to the throne, although 2 Kings[95] states he was twenty-five years of age. His father died at the age of thirty-six;[96]
it is not likely that Ahaz at the age of eleven should have had a son.
Hezekiah's own son Manasseh ascended the throne twenty-nine years later,
at the age of twelve. This places his birth in the seventeenth year of
his father's reign, or gives Hezekiah's age as forty-two, if he was
twenty-five at his ascension. It is more probable that Ahaz was
twenty-one or twenty-five when Hezekiah was born (and suggesting an
error in the text), and that the latter was thirty-two at the birth of
his son and successor, Manasseh.
Since Albright and Friedman,
several scholars have explained these dating problems on the basis of a
coregency between Hezekiah and his father Ahaz between 729 and 716/715
BCE. Assyriologists and Egyptologists recognize that coregency was a
practice both in Assyria and Egypt.[97][98] After noting that coregencies were only used sporadically in the northern kingdom (Israel), Nadav Na'aman writes,
In the kingdom of Judah, on the other hand, the
nomination of a co-regent was the common procedure, beginning from David
who, before his death, elevated his son Solomon to the throne. When
taking into account the permanent nature of the co-regency in Judah from
the time of Joash, one may dare to conclude that dating the
co-regencies accurately is indeed the key for solving the problems of
biblical chronology in the eighth century BC."[99]
Among the numerous scholars who have recognized the coregency between
Ahaz and Hezekiah are Kenneth Kitchen in his various writings,[100] Leslie McFall,[101] and Jack Finegan.[102]
McFall, in his 1991 article, argues that if 729 BCE (that is, the
Judean regnal year beginning in Tishri of 729) is taken as the start of
the Ahaz/Hezekiah coregency, and 716/715 BCE as the date of the death of
Ahaz, then all the extensive chronological data for Hezekiah and his
contemporaries in the late eighth century BCE are in harmony. Further,
McFall found that no textual emendations are required among the numerous dates, reign lengths, and synchronisms given in the Hebrew Testament for this period.[103]
In contrast, those who do not accept the Ancient Near Eastern principle
of coregencies require multiple emendations of the Scriptural text, and
there is no general agreement on which texts should be emended, nor is
there any consensus among these scholars on the resultant chronology for
the eighth century BCE. This is in contrast with the general consensus
among those who accept the biblical and near Eastern practice of
coregencies that Hezekiah was installed as coregent with his father Ahaz
in 729 BCE, and the synchronisms of 2 Kings 18 must be measured from
that date, whereas the synchronisms to Sennacherib are measured from the
sole reign starting in 716/715 BCE. The two synchronisms to Hoshea
of Israel in 2 Kings 18 are then in exact agreement with the dates of
Hoshea's reign that can be determined from Assyrian sources, as is the
date of Samaria's fall as stated in 2 Kings 18:10. An analogous
situation of two ways of measurement, both equally valid, is encountered
in the dates given for Jehoram of Israel, whose first year is synchronized to the 18th year of the sole reign of Jehoshaphat
of Judah in 2 Kings 3:1 (853/852 BCE), but his reign is also reckoned
according to another method as starting in the second year of the
coregency of Jehoshaphat and his son Jehoram of Judah (2 Kings 1:17); both methods refer to the same calendrical year.
Scholars who accept the principle of coregencies note that
abundant evidence for their use is found in the biblical material
itself.[104]
The agreement of scholarship built on these principles with both
biblical and secular texts was such that the Thiele/McFall chronology
was accepted as the best chronology for the kingdom period in Jack
Finegan's encyclopedic Handbook of Biblical Chronology.[105]
Driscoll, James F. (1910). "Ezechias" . In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 8. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
Friedrich Justus Knecht (1910). "The Pious King Ezechias" . A Practical Commentary on Holy Scripture. B. Herder.
Notes
Several
different theories regarding the dates of Hezekiah's reign exist,
including a coregency with Ahaz 729–716/15 BCE, a sole reign 716/15–697
BCE, and coregency with Manasseh 697–687/86 BCE (?)
An ancestor of the prophet Zephaniah is listed as "Amariah, son of Hezekiah", but whether or not this Hezekiah is the same individual as the king is unknown.
Hebrew: חִזְקִיָּהוּ, חִזְקִיָּה, יְחִזְקִיָּהוּ, Modern: Ḥīzqīyáhū, Ḥīzqīyá, Yəḥīzqīyáhū, Tiberian: Ḥīzqīyyāhū, Ḥīzqīyyā, Yĭḥīzqīyyāhū;[1]Akkadian: 𒄩𒍝𒆥𒀀𒌑, romanized: Ḫazaqia'ú, ḫa-za-qi-a-ú); Ancient Greek: Ἐζεκίας 'Ezekías; Latin: Ezechias; also transliterated as Ḥizkiyyahu or Ḥizkiyyah; meaning "Yah shall strengthen"
References
Khan, Geoffrey (2020). The Tiberian Pronunciation Tradition of Biblical Hebrew, Volume 1. Open Book Publishers. ISBN978-1783746767.
Harris, Stephen L., Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985. "Glossary", pp. 367–432
Encyclopædia Britannica (2009), Hezekiah, Encyclopædia Britannica Online, 12 November 2009.
Mazar, Eliat (1 February 2018). "Is This the Prophet Isaiah's Signature?". Biblical Archaeology Review. 44 (2): 64–69. Retrieved 14 March 2018. This
seal impression of Isaiah, therefore, is unique, and questions still
remain about what it actually says. However, the close relationship
between Isaiah and King Hezekiah, as described in the Bible, and the
fact the bulla was found next to one bearing the name of Hezekiah seem
to leave open the possibility that, despite the difficulties presented
by the bulla's damaged area, this may have been a seal impression of
Isaiah the prophet, adviser to King Hezekiah.
"2018 February". www.rollstonepigraphy.com. Retrieved 27 February 2018.
.jpg)
.jpg)
%201854-1972%20February%2021%201926%20Page%2020%20Image%2020.png)
%201877-1972%20September%2021%201906%20Image%202.png)
.jpg)
_Miniature_14_(cropped).jpg)
