The Knapps Creek Watershed: An Expert Assessment of Hydrology, Ecology, and Resource Management in Pocahontas County, West Virginia
I. Executive Summary: Knapps Creek at a Glance
Knapps Creek is a significant 26.3-mile tributary of the Greenbrier River, flowing entirely within Pocahontas County, West Virginia. Its watershed, encompassing approximately 176 square miles, is characterized by its headwaters in the Allegheny Mountain region and its extensive coverage within the Monongahela National Forest. Despite its recognition as a premier recreational resource, particularly for trout fishing, the creek operates under a serious environmental contradiction: it is listed as an impaired waterbody under Section 303(d) of the Clean Water Act.
The primary resource management challenge facing the Knapps Creek watershed is the chronic impairment due to high levels of Fecal Coliform Bacteria and excessive Sediment loading. These pollutants severely degrade aquatic ecosystems and threaten public health. The regulatory framework, established through the Greenbrier River Total Maximum Daily Load (TMDL), mandated aggressive, stringent reductions, including a zero load allocation for failing septic systems and a 100% reduction from the Marlinton Combined Sewer Overflow (CSO).
Crucially, the policy mechanism designed to achieve these standards—the Knapp Creek Watershed Based Plan (WBP), initiated in 2013 with an estimated cost of $5.4 million—is currently categorized as "Not Active". This regulatory stagnation implies that pollution sources, including failing wastewater systems, poorly managed agricultural runoff, and accelerated stream bank erosion, remain largely unmitigated years after they were first identified. Furthermore, the persistent sediment loading contributes to reduced channel capacity, amplifying the historical and increasing risk of flooding for the approximately 18% of residences deemed at major risk.
Immediate revitalization of the WBP and strategic, coordinated investment in non-point source pollution control and flood resilience infrastructure are necessary to protect the sensitive aquatic ecology, including the sediment-sensitive Candy Darter (Etheostoma osburni), and to bring the water quality into compliance with primary contact recreation standards.
II. Geographical and Hydrological Foundation of the Watershed
Hydrological Profile and Course
Knapps Creek is a 26.3-mile stream located entirely within Pocahontas County, West Virginia, draining a watershed that covers approximately 176 square miles. Its headwaters originate high on Allegheny Mountain, east of the community of Frost, at a significant elevation of 3,618 feet (1,103 meters).
From its source, the creek flows slowly through farmland until its first major confluence with Laurel Creek at Minnehaha Springs. Laurel Creek and Cummings Creek are designated as left bank tributaries of Knapps Creek. The stream continues downstream through the town of Huntersville before eventually reaching its mouth. Six miles outside the town of Marlinton, Knapps Creek empties into the Greenbrier River at an elevation of 2,113 feet (644 meters). The creek’s course, from its high-elevation source to its low-elevation mouth, spans a vertical drop of over 1,500 feet, influencing its flow characteristics and flood susceptibility.
Monitoring and Flow Dynamics
The Knapp Creek watershed is identified by the 10-digit Hydrologic Unit Code (HUC) 0505000304. Hydrological data and stream health parameters are continuously tracked by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) at Monitoring Location 03181949, near Marlinton, WV.
Monitoring data for discharge, measured in cubic feet per second (cfs), provides critical insight into the stream’s flow characteristics. For instance, recent instantaneous values were recorded at 156 cfs, indicating periods of higher flow, while the historical minimum documented in 2022 was 11.9 cfs. The mean discharge value is approximately 91 cfs, with the 25th percentile flow rate recorded at 22 cfs. These fluctuations underscore the sensitivity of the creek to different flow regimes, an important factor for both flood risk assessment and ecological monitoring, which must include three samples per year during different flow regimes for establishing the baseline. Water temperature is also monitored, which is essential for understanding the habitat suitability for coldwater species like trout.
Topography and Flood Vulnerability
The geological and morphological characteristics of the Knapp Creek basin create a high vulnerability to erosion and flooding. Flooding is a historical issue that is projected to increase in severity and frequency over the coming decades due to aging infrastructure and more intense storm events.
A significant portion of the watershed's population, approximately 18% of residences, resides in areas identified as having a major risk of flooding. Flooding poses a multi-faceted threat, compromising property, limiting access to essential utilities and emergency services, and damaging agricultural land and crops. This heightened flood risk is profoundly connected to the stream’s water quality issues. Specifically, sedimentation caused by sheet and rill erosion in the uplands negatively impacts the creek and its tributaries. This sediment loading physically reduces the channel’s capacity to convey water, directly exacerbating flood damages, creating a destructive feedback loop.
Addressing this problem requires implementing integrated management strategies. Strategic installation of flood control structures, combined with land treatment practices, natural stream restoration, and green infrastructure (such as wetlands and rain gardens), is essential. These measures serve the dual purpose of increasing water retention, controlling flow, and reducing soil erosion across all land uses, thereby reducing the harmful sediment loads in the waterways.
Table II.1: Knapps Creek Geographical and Hydrological Metrics
| Parameter | Value | Units/Details |
| Stream Length | 26.3 | Miles |
| Watershed Area | 176 | Square Miles |
| Source Elevation (Allegheny Mtn) | 3,618 | ft (1,103 m) |
| Mouth Elevation (Greenbrier River) | 2,113 | ft (644 m) |
| HUC 10 Code | 0505000304 | Knapp Creek Watershed |
| USGS Gage ID | 03181949 | Near Marlinton, WV |
III. Historical Development and Land Use Context
The history of Knapps Creek and its surrounding Pocahontas County landscape is deeply intertwined with resource utilization, which has shaped the modern environmental challenges the watershed faces.
Settlement and Cultural History
The creek derives its name from Knapp Gregory, one of the area's early settlers. The historical documentation of the forest ecology and early community life at the turn of the 20th century is preserved in literary works such as W. E. Blackhurst's book, Riders of the Flood, and its theatrical adaptation. The historical settlement patterns established towns like Frost, Minnehaha Springs, Huntersville, and Marlinton, all situated along the course of the creek.
The Legacy of Resource Exploitation
Pocahontas County’s economic development was heavily influenced by the construction of railroads and the subsequent growth of the lumber industry following the Civil War. Logging was, and continues to be, one of the most vital economic activities in the county, encompassing the entirety of the Knapp Creek watershed. Given that nearly 90% of the watershed is forested, this activity has a substantial footprint on the area’s ecology.
Historically, heavy logging practices removed mature, stabilizing forest cover, accelerating runoff and soil exposure. This historical disturbance created a long-standing pattern of instability, contributing significantly to the persistent issues of stream bank erosion and sediment loading observed today. Currently, logging operations are regulated by the West Virginia Division of Forestry (DOF) through the Logging Sediment Control Act, which requires permits and compliance with Best Management Practices (BMPs) to mitigate increased sediment potential. While regulated, the legacy of past resource extraction remains an underlying factor in the watershed’s geological vulnerability.
Agricultural Impact and Erosion
Agricultural use, primarily cattle, sheep, and horse pasture, is concentrated along the flatter valley floor areas. Intensive grazing and poor vegetative control practices, such as the past mechanical removal and spraying of riparian buffers, have destabilized stream banks and created conditions conducive to high runoff. Lateral erosion, a measure of stream bank instability, resulted in the loss of 111.6 acres of farmland between 1948 and 1997.
The severity of stream bank erosion, particularly in the upper watershed, was recognized by the Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS), leading to the development of the Upper Knapps Creek Watershed Restoration and Management Plan. Furthermore, the land use analysis confirmed that pastures exhibiting "high" or "moderate" runoff potential—characterized by steep slopes, livestock access to the channel, and sparse riparian buffers—are directly correlated with the highest fecal coliform counts, linking land use practices immediately to water quality impairments.
Monongahela National Forest Context
A substantial portion of the Knapp Creek watershed falls within the boundaries of the Monongahela National Forest (MNF). This area is crucial for recreation, conservation, and resource management, including the oversight of interspersed private lands. Activities within the MNF are governed by specific rules from the U.S. Forest Service (USFS), ensuring resource protection. These rules include mandates that camping be restricted to designated sites, quiet hours be observed (10:00 p.m. to 6:00 a.m.), and vehicles be parked only in designated driveways, not driven off-road. Furthermore, pets must be restrained in developed areas, and removing any natural or man-made objects, except legally taken game and fish, is prohibited. The presence of both national forest land and private holdings necessitates careful coordination among the USFS, the WV Division of Forestry (DOF), and the West Virginia Division of Natural Resources (WVDNR) to ensure effective resource management and watershed restoration efforts.
IV. Ecological Status and Sensitive Aquatic Biota
The ecological assessment of Knapps Creek reveals a system under significant stress from sediment and bacterial contamination, directly impacting its capacity to support sensitive aquatic life.
303(d) Listing and Impairment Status
Knapps Creek was initially designated as impaired and placed on the Section 303(d) list in 2006, based on monitoring data collected from 2004 through 2005. The primary pollutant identified at that time was Fecal Coliform Bacteria, which affected the designated uses of Water Contact Recreation and Public Water Supply. More recently, the ongoing impaired status of Knapps Creek was noted during the compilation of West Virginia’s Combined 2018-2022 Section 303(d) list, confirming that the issues of bacterial contamination and sedimentation persist.
The failure to meet the water quality criteria for Primary Contact Recreation is defined by a monthly geometric mean of fecal coliform content that must not exceed 200/100 mL, nor exceed 400/100 mL in more than 10 percent of all samples taken during the month. The persistent violation of this standard places the public health of recreational users, particularly waders and swimmers, at risk.
The Indicator Species: The Candy Darter
Knapps Creek is a critical habitat for the Candy Darter (Etheostoma osburni), a small, brilliantly colored fish belonging to the perch family. The Candy Darter is notably sensitive to sediment accumulation in stream beds.
The viability of this species serves as a crucial biological indicator for the overall health of the creek’s benthic environment. High sediment loading, originating from upland and stream bank erosion , directly threatens the Darter’s spawning and feeding habitats. This biological stress elevates the urgency of addressing erosion control. If sediment reduction targets are not met, the continued degradation of benthic habitats places the Darter's population at risk, potentially triggering broader protections under federal biodiversity regulations, regardless of the primary bacterial 303(d) listing.
Impacts of Pollution on Aquatic Life
The ecological impairment extends beyond the Candy Darter. Sediment loading, identified as a pervasive resource concern throughout the watershed , physically degrades the aquatic environment. Sediment inputs increase turbidity, which, combined with elevated nutrient levels, can reduce dissolved oxygen (DO) concentrations. Low DO concentrations and rapidly shifting chemical conditions (such as pH fluctuation) stress benthic macroinvertebrates—the base of the aquatic food web—and reduce the overall suitability of the stream for fish populations.
The continuous presence of the creek on the 303(d) list, coupled with the inactive status of the restoration plan , confirms that the pollution sources are continuously stressing the aquatic ecosystem. The health of the headwater streams, such as Knapps Creek, is essential for maintaining the ultimate health and function of the downstream river continuum, including the Greenbrier River.
V. Water Quality Impairment and Regulatory Framework
The regulatory history of Knapps Creek is defined by a rigorous set of standards designed to remediate chronic fecal coliform and sediment problems, standards that remain largely unfulfilled due to the collapse of implementation efforts.
Total Maximum Daily Load (TMDL) Requirements
The 2008 Greenbrier River TMDL detailed specific water quality findings for Knapps Creek and two major tributaries, Browns Creek and Douthat Creek, all of which demonstrated high levels of fecal coliform bacteria. The TMDL established clear, stringent targets for pollution source reduction:
On-site Wastewater Treatment Systems (Septic Systems): Because West Virginia Bureau for Public Health (BPH) regulations prohibit the discharge of raw sewage into surface waters, the TMDL set a target of zero load allocation for failing septic systems. This required a 100% reduction in fecal coliform from failing septics across nearly all 24 subwatersheds into which Knapps Creek was divided for modeling purposes. Failure types included "complete failure" (50 gallons per house per day of untreated sewage) and "periodic failure" (25 gallons per house per day of untreated sewage).
The Unmet Challenge of the Watershed Based Plan (WBP)
The Knapps Creek Watershed Based Plan (WBP) was developed as the blueprint for achieving the mandated reductions, initiated in 2013 with an estimated total cost of $5.4 million. However, the status of this critical policy document is currently listed by the WV Department of Environmental Protection (WVDEP) as "Not Active".
The zero-load allocation for failing septic systems represents an exceptionally strict regulatory goal, demanding that every failing system be repaired or replaced, typically requiring significant public subsidy or grant funding in rural areas. The "Not Active" status of the WBP implies that the necessary funding and logistical execution required to enforce these widespread wastewater system upgrades have failed, allowing the chronic contamination to continue.
The environmental consequences of this policy inactivity are profound: the watershed remains impaired, public health risks are maintained, and the Candy Darter habitat continues to suffer degradation from ongoing sedimentation. Sedimentation, a key resource concern, is caused by erosion in the uplands and contributes to reduced channel capacity, which simultaneously increases flood damage. Without an active WBP, the complex, inter-jurisdictional restoration efforts necessary to address erosion on both private farmlands and within the Monongahela National Forest are stalled.
Table V.1: Knapps Creek 303(d) Impairment Status and Source Analysis
| Impaired Waterbody | Pollutant | Affected Designated Use | Primary Sources of Impairment | TMDL Reduction Goal (Fecal) | WBP Status (Year) |
| Knapp Creek | Fecal Coliform, Sediment | Water Contact Recreation, Public Water Supply, Aquatic Life | Septics, Agriculture, Marlinton STP (CSO), Erosion | 100% (Septics/CSO) | Not Active (2013) |
| Browns Creek | Fecal Coliform | Water Contact Recreation, Public Water Supply | Septics, Agriculture | 100% (Septics) | Not Active (2013) |
| Douthat Creek | Fecal Coliform | Water Contact Recreation, Public Water Supply | Septics, Agriculture | 100% (Septics) | Not Active (2013) |
VI. Recreational Resource Management and Economic Value
Knapps Creek is an invaluable recreational asset to Pocahontas County, strongly supporting the local tourism economy, particularly through its status as a managed coldwater fishery.
Premier Trout Fishery Status
The creek is a well-known destination for trout fishing, frequently mentioned in conjunction with regional outdoor attractions such as Watoga State Park, Seneca State Forest, and the Monongahela National Forest. This resource is managed through an aggressive coldwater stocking program conducted by the West Virginia Division of Natural Resources (WVDNR). The WVDNR’s program stocks catchable trout, averaging inches and pounds, in streams and lakes across the state, including Knapps Creek, often focusing on Rainbow, Brown, and Golden Rainbow Trout.
Knapps Creek is included in the WVDNR's regular stocking schedule, with documented stocking runs occurring even in the late fall (e.g., October and November). This management effort ensures year-round fishing opportunities, contributing significantly to Pocahontas County’s transformation of tourism into a major industry.
Specific Regulations and Access
A specific 8-mile stretch of Knapps Creek is formally managed for public fishing, extending from Minnehaha Springs downstream to Marlinton. This section is designated by the regulatory code W-F (Winter/Fall stocking). The W-F designation signifies that the stream receives planned stockings outside of the peak spring season, ensuring continued availability of catchable trout.
Multiple access points along this managed segment allow anglers to customize the length of their trip. The creek is situated near the 78-mile Greenbrier River Trail , which provides foot, bike, or equestrian access to the wider river system and facilitates access to the stream in the Marlinton area. Support infrastructure, such as the Knapps Creek Trout Lodge in Marlinton, offers guiding services and fly fishing lessons, underscoring the commercial value of the fishery. Furthermore, the nearby Edray State Trout Hatchery allows visitors to observe the stocking process and fish breeding.
All anglers 15 years and older are required to possess a West Virginia fishing license and a trout stamp for coldwater fishing.
Public Health Risk and Policy Dissonance
The creek's status presents a regulatory conflict: it is actively promoted and managed for recreational use while simultaneously being listed as impaired due to chronic bacterial contamination. Wading, a common practice in fly fishing, requires primary contact with water. Given the consistent violation of the recreational water quality standard (geometric mean exceeding 200/100 mL for fecal coliform), anglers engaging in this activity are exposed to an unnecessary and persistent public health risk.
The heavy reliance on stocked fish, indicated by the W-F status, further highlights the stream’s ecological impairment. The sensitive native aquatic biota, exemplified by the Candy Darter, cannot naturally sustain a robust fishery due to the ongoing stress from sedimentation. The fishing experience is artificially sustained through human intervention, masking the underlying policy failure to protect the stream’s natural ecological function and public safety.
Table VI.1: Knapps Creek Recreational Fishing Management and Access
| Waterbody Segment | Length | WVDNR Regulation Code | Stocking Period | Key Access Points |
| Knapps Creek | 8 Miles | W-F | Winter/Fall (Example: Oct/Nov Stockings) | Minnehaha Springs downstream to Marlinton |
| Edray Hatchery | N/A | N/A | Supports Stocking Program | Edray, WV |
VII. Strategic Conclusions and Recommendations for Restoration
The analysis of Knapps Creek confirms that the watershed is characterized by significant ecological vulnerability and regulatory inertia. The hydrological, historical, and biological data converge on two dominant, interconnected policy challenges: chronic fecal coliform contamination from inadequate infrastructure, and accelerated sedimentation driven by historic land use and increasing flood risk.
Policy and Policy Implementation Conclusions
The most critical factor impeding the restoration of Knapps Creek is the "Not Active" status of the Watershed Based Plan (WBP). This policy hiatus means that the TMDL requirements—specifically the non-negotiable 100% reduction/zero load allocation for failing septic systems and the elimination of the Marlinton CSO load —have not been enforced or financed. The complex administrative and financial burden associated with achieving these absolute reduction targets across rural subwatersheds appears to have caused the WBP to lapse.
Furthermore, the simultaneous promotion of the creek as a recreational resource and its continued listing as impaired for water contact recreation creates a severe dissonance. This places the public at risk and undermines the integrity of environmental management in Pocahontas County.
The persistent sedimentation issue demonstrates a historical-ecological linkage. The long-term effects of land use, particularly erosion exacerbated by agricultural practices and the legacy of historical logging, continue to feed sediment into the channel. This sediment restricts flow capacity, increases flood risk, and directly threatens the sensitive Candy Darter.
Recommendations for Immediate Action and Long-Term Resilience
Based on the synthesis of regulatory and hydrological data, the following strategic recommendations are required to move Knapps Creek toward de-listing and sustained ecological health:
1. Re-activation and Re-funding of the Watershed Based Plan
The Knapp Creek WBP must be immediately re-activated and secured with dedicated, multi-year funding, potentially targeting federal programs such as those administered by the EPA and USDA-NRCS. The initial estimated cost of $5.4 million should be reassessed to account for current material and labor costs. Prioritized funding must be allocated toward achieving the legally mandated 100% reduction targets for non-point source pollution.
2. Targeted Non-Point Source Pollution Control
Implementation must focus on the two major sources of fecal coliform:
Wastewater Infrastructure: Implement a subsidized or grant-based program for the evaluation, repair, and replacement of failing on-site septic systems in critical subwatersheds. This action is essential for protecting public water supply and contact recreation uses.
3. Integrated Sediment and Flood Management Strategy
Recognizing that sediment and flooding are interdependent problems, remediation must integrate erosion control with flood resilience:
Riparian Zone Restoration: Aggressively implement agricultural Best Management Practices (BMPs). This includes installing fencing to restrict livestock access to the stream channel, establishing alternative watering sources, and re-planting robust riparian vegetative filter zones. These measures reduce runoff potential and stabilize stream banks, addressing both bacterial and sediment pollution simultaneously.
4. Enhanced Monitoring and Public Information
A comprehensive monitoring program, as initially outlined in the WBP proposal, must be established immediately. This includes strategically placed stations at the mouths of Douthat Creek, Browns Creek, and the mainstem of Knapps Creek. Regular sampling across different flow regimes is necessary to accurately track pollution sources and evaluate the success of implemented BMPs. Until TMDL targets are demonstrably met, the WVDNR and local health authorities must issue clear and mandatory public health advisories regarding the risks associated with primary water contact in the impaired 8-mile recreational segment. The presence of continuous USGS flow data at location 03181949 provides an essential tool for correlating water quality samples with specific discharge events, optimizing targeted remediation efforts.
Marlinton Sewage Treatment Plant (STP): The facility in Marlinton was identified as a Combined Sewer Overflow (CSO) community. The TMDL imposed a waste load allocation that required a 100% reduction in fecal coliform from the CSO event to meet water quality standards.
Agriculture: Agricultural activities, characterized by grazing cattle, sheep, and horses, contribute significantly to both fecal coliform and sediment loading. Runoff potential is highest in areas with steep slopes, livestock stream access, and poor riparian buffers.
Marlinton STP: Ensure the 100% fecal coliform reduction from the Combined Sewer Overflow (CSO) is achieved, likely through infrastructure upgrades or separation projects, as stipulated by the TMDL.
Natural Stream Restoration and Green Infrastructure: Invest in natural stream restoration and "green infrastructure" (e.g., constructed wetlands and rain gardens) to stabilize severe stream bank erosion segments identified in the Upper Knapps Creek Watershed Restoration and Management Plan. This dual approach conserves soil resources and increases the watershed's capacity for controlled water retention, mitigating the increasing risk of flood damage.
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