Medieval Song

 

A Musicological Analysis of Medieval Secular Song: Elements, Structure, and a 100-Prompt Creative Atelier

Part I: Deconstructing the "Medieval Folk" Aesthetic: Context and Performers

Section 1.1: The Problem of "Medieval Folk" Music

The user query for the essential elements of a "medieval folk song" necessitates a foundational scholarly clarification. The term itself is anachronistic, projecting a modern-day

romantic category onto a historical period where such a concept was not formally recognized. The musical record of the Middle Ages, spanning approximately 500 CE to 1400 CE 1, is defined by a profound preservation bias. The "overwhelming percentage" 1 of surviving compositions is sacred, liturgical music, composed for the church.1 This is a direct consequence of socio-economic and educational structures: the Catholic Church was the primary, and often only, institution with the literacy, resources, and motivation to sponsor, codify, and preserve music in "huge books".4 This preserved canon, such as Gregorian chant, was predominantly monophonic (a single melody line) and served a specific, non-secular function.1

Conversely, the music of the "simple society" 6, the true "folk" music of the village and the field, belonged to a primarily illiterate, oral tradition.4 As one analysis notes, this is the body of music that "wasn't well preserved".4 For every court composer or educated noble amateur, there were "dozens of musicians, performers, and peasant amateurs who were not" educated by the church or possessed of the wealth to commission notation.4 This music is, therefore, largely lost to history.

This leads to a critical conclusion: the modern concept of "medieval folk song" is not a recreation of this lost peasant music. It is an aesthetic construct, a "blurry" 4 composite assembled by modern listeners from the surviving secular traditions that have come to represent the "folk" sound.6 This report will, therefore, analyze the elements of this perceived "folk" aesthetic, which is drawn from three primary surviving sources:

1. Secular Vernacular Song: The chansons and Lieder of literate poet-musicians, such as the troubadours and trouvères.1

2. Narrative Ballads: Storytelling songs that existed in oral tradition but were eventually collected and written down, forming a bridge between "folk" and "art" music.4

3. Instrumental Dance Music: Melodies like the estampie which, by their rhythmic nature, were captured in notation.10

A 12th-century drinking song from the Carmina Burana, "In Taberna Quando Sumus," provides a perfect example. Its melody is "eminently singable," "repetitive," and "not too far off... from a melody an SCA bard might come up with".4 It feels "folky" to the modern ear, even though it was preserved in a literate manuscript.

This historical record is not only incomplete; it is a filter. The Church did not just passively fail to record folk music; it actively "attempted to suppress folk music because of its association with pre-Christian rites and customs".7 This explains the thematic content of the surviving record. Surviving songs are "mostly about religion" or, in the secular sphere, courtly love.11 The very themes that a modern "Creative Practitioner" might seek in "folk" music—local folklore, "black magic," or mythology 12—are the ones most likely to have been expunged. This creates a paradox: a truly "authentic" recreation of medieval folk themes (like local legends 12) is an act of historical reconstruction, as it runs counter to the grain of the written and preserved record.

Section 1.2: The Secular Sound: An Engine of Innovation

While sacred music, exemplified by Gregorian chant, was the dominant preserved form, the secular world provided the fertile ground for the most significant musical innovations of the Middle Ages.13 Sacred music was, by design, conservative—monophonic and rhythmically uniform.1 Secular music, by contrast, was created for a variety of dynamic social functions: to accompany dance, to express the pangs of love, and to tell stories.11

This functional demand forced innovation. Secular music was composed in the vernacular—the local language of the people, such as Old French or Middle High German—rather than the universal Latin of the Church.16 The key secular genres included the chanson (the French term for "song," often about love) 10, the estampie (a popular instrumental dance form) 10, and the narrative ballad.9

The expressive requirements of these forms, particularly the need to set poetry and provide a clear rhythm for dancing, directly challenged the limitations of older musical systems. While early chant lacked any written rhythmic system 17, the troubadours, with their "songs composed in verse," are credited with contributing to the development of measured notation.13 This new system allowed performers "to determine the duration of notes, and therefore to define the rhythm of the song".13

This trend culminated in the 14th-century Ars Nova ("New Art") movement.1 This was a secular-driven revolution that "fully embraced polyphonic music" (music with multiple, independent melodic lines) and introduced "new rhythmic complexity".1 Polyphony itself, which began as simple parallel motion in the Church (organum) 14, was developed by secular composers into the complex, expressive, multi-part ballades and rondeaux of composers like Guillaume de Machaut.13 Thus, the "folk" and "courtly" secular worlds were the true engines of Western musical advancement, creating the very tools—rhythmic notation and polyphony—that would define music for centuries.3

Section 1.3: The Faces of Performance: Troubadour vs. Minstrel

A clear social hierarchy separated the performers of medieval secular music, a division that is crucial to understanding the "folk" aesthetic.

1. The Troubadours, Trouvères, and Minnesänger: These were the high-status poet-musicians.1 They were often members of the nobility themselves 13 or, at the least, poor knights who operated within the noble court system, seeking patronage from figures like Eleanor of Aquitaine.19 These individuals composed and performed sophisticated "art songs," the primary theme of which was fin'amors, or "courtly love".11 Walther von der Vogelweide, a German Minnesänger, is a prime example of this class.20 They were the period's "singer-songwriters" and poets.

2. The Minstrels and Jongleurs: These were the professional, non-noble entertainers.21 The term "minstrel" was an incredibly broad, often pejorative, catch-all. A 14th-century account describes Henry II's court as full of "entertainers, singers, dice-players, flatterers, taverners... actors, barbers—gluttons the whole lot of them".19 These performers were jacks-of-all-trades, expected to be acrobats, mimics, dancers, and jesters in addition to being musicians.19

This class division is directly reflected in the music's content and function. The "bard" in a tavern, a common fantasy trope 8, or the musician playing for a village dance 6, is the historical minstrel. While minstrels and jongleurs often performed the "hits" composed by the troubadours 21, they also maintained their own, separate repertoire. This included the lively, rhythmic estampies (dances) 10 and, significantly, fabliaux—"laughable stories" that "were frequently of the grossest description".23

This "low-status" repertoire of the minstrel—rowdy dance music, tavern songs, and crude, humorous storytelling—is functionally and thematically far closer to our modern concept of "folk" music than the high-art, chaste-love poetry of the troubadour. The minstrel is the true historical vector for the "medieval folk" aesthetic.

Part II: The Anatomy of a Medieval Song: Lyrics and Poetic Form

Section 2.1: The Medieval Lyric: Themes of Heaven and Earth

The surviving secular lyrics from the Middle Ages, while filtered by the literate elite, nonetheless cover a wide spectrum of human experience beyond the walls of the church.11

• Courtly Love: This was the dominant and most prestigious theme, particularly in the chansons of the troubadours and trouvères.11 This was not simple "love," but a highly codified system of fin'amors (courtly love). The song Foy Porter by Guillaume de Machaut is a perfect example, describing an idealized, pure, and often unrequited love for a noble lady, which the protagonist claims moves him "to become a better person".24

• Narrative and History: A primary function of secular song was storytelling.11 This took many forms, from grand epic poetry like The Song of Roland, which recounts the 8th-century Battle of Roncevaux 24, to narrative ballads that chronicled historical events or local folklore.9 Songs about folk heroes, such as "Robin Hode and the Munke," fall into this category.12

• Daily Life and Celebration: This category is perhaps closest to the "folk" ideal. It includes songs celebrating the seasons, most famously the 13th-century reverdie (re-greening) "Sumer is icumen in," which joyfully announces the arrival of summer with the call of the cuckoo and the bleating of ewes.25 It also includes the raucous drinking songs found in the 12th-century Carmina Burana manuscript 4 and songs about the functions of daily life.11

• Religion and Politics: Secular song was also a vehicle for political and religious expression outside of formal liturgy. Troubadours and minstrels composed songs about "political matters, and current events".11 A prime example is Palästinalied ("Palestine Song") by Walther von der Vogelweide, a 13th-century crusade song written from the perspective of a pilgrim reaching the Holy Land.27

The "folk" quality of a song is often determined by its choice of theme. The "eminently singable" drinking songs of the Carmina Burana 4 or the folklore of Robin Hode 12 feel more "folky" to a modern listener than the complex, high-art courtly love of Machaut.24

Section 2.2: Poetic Devices and Narrative Craft

In a culture that was largely oral, musical storytelling was a sophisticated and essential craft.29 A medieval storyteller (minstrel or jongleur) was a master performer, not just a reciter of text. They employed a range of techniques "to captivate their audience and bring stories to life".29

The lyrics themselves relied on "vivid language and detailed descriptions" to create images in the listeners' minds, appealing not just to sight but to "smells, sounds and feelings".29 Narrative structures were designed to build suspense and "surprise with unexpected twists".29

However, the text was only half the performance. The delivery was paramount. An accomplished storyteller used "gestures and facial expressions" to "reflect the emotions of the characters," and the voice was their "central tool".29 By "varying pitch, volume and speed," a single narrator could "portray different characters and influence the mood".29

To aid memory and audience engagement, performers relied on key poetic structures. Repetition was a fundamental device in the ballad form.9 Refrains, or repeating musical sections, were common and likely encouraged audience participation.3 In the Germanic vernacular traditions, poets often used alliterative verse, where many of the stressed words in a line begin with the same sound, a technique inherited from oral epic traditions.30

This performance-centric model implies that a medieval song was not a static, fixed "work" as we understand it today. Storytellers were known to "improvise and interact with the audience," and, crucially, to "adapt the story to the respective audience".29 A performer might tell "epic heroic stories to aristocrats" but "choose humorous anecdotes or moral fables for peasants".29 This reinforces the idea that in the medieval world, "drama... was enacted through song and story-telling".31 The music was a fluid, functional, and dramatic social event.

Section 2.3: Rhyme and Meter: Simple vs. Complex

The poetic structure of a medieval song is, like instrumentation and theme, a clear signifier of its social class and function. A distinct divide exists between the simple, functional forms of the "folk" tradition and the complex "art" forms of the court.

1. The Ballad Form (Folk/Populist): This is the quintessential "folk" structure, and its characteristics are well-defined. It is strophic, meaning it is divided into stanzas, or verses.32 These stanzas are typically quatrains (four lines long).9 The rhyme scheme is often simple and effective for storytelling: ABCB, where only the second and fourth lines rhyme.33 This structure is robust, easily memorized, and flexible, allowing for countless verses to be added to tell a long story.9 Many traditional folk songs, such as "Dives and Lazarus" (better known as "The Star of the County Down"), have a "folk-like" structure and modality that dates back to this period.4

2. The Courtly Forms (Formes Fixes): In stark contrast, the poet-musicians of the court, especially during the Ars Nova period, prided themselves on complex, "fixed forms" (formes fixes).18 These included the ballade, the rondeau, and the virelai.18 These forms were "difficult to write".31 A virelai, for example, might employ an intricate rhyme scheme like AA bbba, where the "A" rhyme must be recalled from the opening chorus and reused later.31 These forms, with "long lines" and "only two rhymes across the chorus and the verse," were "art songs" designed to "be exacting to write" and to be heard by an "attentive" and educated audience.31

This distinction is clear. The simple, strophic ABCB ballad structure signals a "folk" or "minstrel" persona; it prioritizes the story. The complex, interlocking virelai structure signals a "courtly" or "troubadour" persona; it prioritizes the art of the poet.

Part III: The Sonic Architecture: Structure, Rhythm, and Tonality

Section 3.1: Structural Foundations: Repeat, Respond, Reframe

The most common and foundational song structure in the medieval secular tradition is strophic form.32 This form, often abbreviated as AAA, consists of the same music being repeated for each successive verse (or strophe) of the text.35 This is the fundamental structure of the hymn 3 and, most importantly for this analysis, the narrative ballad.32

This strophic structure is frequently enhanced by a refrain, a repeating musical section (often with the same text) that functions like a modern chorus.3 This creates a verse-chorus-verse-chorus pattern.

Another key structural device is call-and-response.36 This form, where a soloist sings a line (the "call") and a group or another soloist sings a "response," has deep roots in sacred music (where it is called antiphony).37 It was also a common structure for secular songs and carols, such as "All in the Morning".38 This form is inherently communal and participatory.

A rarer, but famous, structure is the rota, or round.39 The 13th-century "Sumer is icumen in" is the most celebrated example. It is a "contrapuntal tour-de-force" 40 in which multiple voices (up to four) sing the same melody, but enter at fixed, staggered intervals, creating a rich, polyphonic web from a single melodic line.39

The dominance of the strophic (AAA) form in the ballad tradition is a direct consequence of its function. The story is the primary focus of a narrative ballad.9 The strophic structure provides a simple, predictable, and repetitive musical framework. This musical "scaffolding" allows the performer and the audience to focus their cognitive energy on the lyrics, which change with each verse. The melody becomes a familiar vehicle for the all-important, developing narrative, which is the essence of sung storytelling.

Section 3.2: The Pulse of the MIddle Ages: Rhythmic Modes

The "feel" of medieval music is profoundly shaped by its rhythm. A significant split exists between the fluid, unmeasured, text-based rhythms of sacred chant and the "regular rhythm with a clear beat" 16 found in secular music, especially dance music.10

While early medieval music lacked a system for notating rhythm 17, the 13th century saw the codification of rhythmic modes.1 These were "standardized rhythmic patterns" 1 that, significantly, were "based on the meters of poetry".16 Music theorists like Johannes de Garlandia (c. 1250) defined six of these modes, which dictated the durational relationship between notes.17 The most common modes were:

• 1st Mode (Trochaic): LONG-short ($q e$)

• 2nd Mode (Iambic): short-LONG ($e q$)

• 3rd Mode (Dactylic): LONG-short-short ($q. e q$)

This system is the source of the characteristic "lilt" or "groove" of medieval music. It is not the 4/4 "backbeat" of modern pop music. It is a more flowing, dance-like, long-and-short pattern derived from classical poetic speech. The estampie, a popular instrumental dance, would have been built on these "lively, rhythmic" modal patterns to provide a clear and compelling pulse for dancers.10

Section 3.3: The Language of Modes: Beyond Major and Minor

This is arguably the single most critical element for capturing the "medieval" sound. Medieval music did not use the modern major and minor scale system. It was built on a system of modes.5 The emotional "flavor" or "mood" of a medieval piece is almost entirely a function of its modal choice.43

While the Ionian mode (which is identical to the modern major scale) and the Aeolian mode (the modern natural minor scale) existed and were used 44, the most characteristic and "folky" medieval sounds come from other modes. The "medieval feel" 8 is generated by the listener hearing notes that are "wrong" according to the modern major/minor system, but "right" according to the modal system.

The key modes for a "folk" or "historical" sound are:

• Dorian Mode: This is a minor-sounding mode, but with a major 6th degree. (e.g., in D: D-E-F-G-A-B-natural-C-D). This "raised" 6th gives it a unique sound, described as "dark but optimistic" 43 or "melancholic or mysterious".20 The 13th-century crusade song Palästinalied is a prime example of a melody in the Dorian mode.20

• Mixolydian Mode: This is a major-sounding mode, but with a flat 7th degree. (e.g., in G: G-A-B-C-D-E-F-natural-G). This "lowered" 7th removes the "leading" tension of a major scale and gives it a more relaxed, "folky" feel. It is described as "folky, Celtic" 43 and is the mode of many traditional folk songs, such as "Scarborough Fair".6

• Phrygian Mode: This is a minor-sounding mode, but with a flat 2nd degree. (e.g., in E: E-F-natural-G-A-B-C-D). This "lowered" 2nd creates a dark, exotic tension. It is described as "extra dark," "exotic," and is characteristic of "flamenco music".43

A modern creator who composes a "medieval" song in a standard C-major key (Ionian mode) will fail to capture the authentic sound. It is the use of the "wrong" notes—the B-natural in D-Dorian or the F-natural in G-Mixolydian—that creates the historically accurate and emotionally distinct "medieval" tonality.

Section 3.4: Texture: The Power of One (and a Drone)

The texture of medieval music was, by default, simple. The "vast majority" of all medieval music, and nearly all early secular song, was monophonic—that is, it consisted of only a "single unison melodic line".1 A chanson, for example, was typically performed by a solo singer, perhaps with a quiet accompaniment.10

The simplest and most common form of accompaniment was the drone.3 A drone is a "sustained pitch or pitches" held constant while the melody moves above or around it.3 This combination of a single, monophonic melody plus a drone is the foundational texture of medieval folk music.

This textural preference was not merely an artistic choice; it was a technological and instrumental reality. The key "folk" instruments of the period were designed to produce this exact texture.

• The bagpipe is, by its nature, a melody pipe played over one or more "drones".45

• The hurdy-gurdy is a "mechanical violin" with "drone" strings that are constantly sounded by the cranked wheel while the melody is played on other strings.2

• The vielle (medieval fiddle) was commonly strung with a "fifth string serving as a drone" 46, which the performer could bow continuously while playing the melody on the other strings.

This powerful convergence is unmistakable. The core sound of medieval folk music is a modal melody (Dorian or Mixolydian) performed over a drone. This texture is a direct and logical consequence of the design of the era's most popular folk instruments.

Part IV: The Minstrel's Toolkit: A Guide to Medieval Instrumentation

Section 4.1: A Divided Orchestra: Haut (Loud) vs. Bas (Soft)

The single most important principle of medieval instrumentation, and the key to any authentic arrangement, is the division between Haut and Bas instruments.47 This classification was not based on instrument family (e.g., strings, woodwinds) but on volume and venue.

• Haut (French for "High"): This referred to instruments that were "high in volume".47 They were the "loud, shrill instruments used to play outdoors".47 Their function was to be heard in large, open spaces.

• Use: Civic bands, processions, outdoor celebrations, and dance bands.45

• Examples: Shawm, Bagpipe, Pipe and Tabor (drum), Trumpet, and Hurdy-Gurdy.2

• Bas (French for "Low"): This referred to instruments that were "low" in volume.47 They were the "soft" instruments used for more intimate, indoor settings.47

• Use: Accompanying a singer (e.g., a chanson), indoor banquets, small dances, and even liturgical services.10

• Examples: Lute, Vielle (fiddle), Harp, Recorder, Flute, and Psaltery.1

This functional divide is a critical rule for any modern re-creator. The choice of instrument was dictated by the performance context. A "tavern song" (indoors, Bas) would be authentically accompanied by a lute 10 or vielle.46 It would never be accompanied by a shawm (outdoors, Haut), which would be deafening in a small room. Conversely, a "village green dance" (outdoors, Haut) required the piercing sound of the shawm and the rhythmic pulse of the tabor to be heard.45

Section 4.2: Bas (Indoor) Instruments: The Singer's Companions

• Lute: A plucked, pear-shaped string instrument, an ancestor of the modern guitar.1 It was the quintessential Bas instrument for accompanying a solo singer.10

• Vielle (Fiddle): A bowed string instrument, a "proto-violin".46 It was highly versatile and popular, capable of both expressive, vocal-like melodies and, via its drone string 46, self-accompaniment.

• Harp: A plucked string instrument of ancient lineage, very popular in the Middle Ages.46 It was used to accompany singers in both courtly and (likely) folk settings.

• Recorder / Flute: Simple woodwind instruments played with the breath.1 The flute and recorder are among the oldest instruments.46 Their simple, "breathy" sound is often associated with the "wandering bard" archetype.8

• Psaltery: A plucked string instrument, often trapezoidal or rectangular, that was held on the lap and plucked with fingers or quills.1 It provided a bright, zither-like accompaniment.49

Section 4.3: Haut (Outdoor) Instruments: The Dance Band

• Shawm: The defining Haut instrument. A loud, nasal, "piercing" 47 double-reed woodwind, the precursor to the oboe.45 This was the lead instrument in medieval "dance bands".45

• Bagpipe: A medieval version of the bagpipe was common, featuring a melody pipe and one or more drones.45 Its constant, loud sound made it a staple of outdoor folk music.6

• Pipe and Tabor: This was the quintessential "one-man-band" for dance music.45 The player would use one hand to play a pipe (a simple three-holed flute) and the other to beat a tabor (a small drum) that was strapped to their arm or waist.45

• Hurdy-Gurdy: A complex "mechanical violin".2 The player turns a crank, which rotates a rosined wheel that "bows" the strings. Melody keys are used to stop the melody strings, while other "drone" strings sound continuously.2 Its loud, rhythmic, and constant drone-based sound made it ideal for dance music and outdoor storytelling.

Section 4.4: Ensemble and Regional Application

Despite large-scale depictions in some manuscripts, the "norm" for a medieval ensemble was small: "a single player or group of 2, 3 or 4".50 Our best evidence for how these instruments were combined comes from iconography, particularly the lavishly illustrated manuscripts of the Cantigas de Santa Maria from 13th-century Spain.2

These illustrations reveal a critical, "third-order" principle: regionalism. "Medieval music" was not a single, homogenous, pan-European sound. The Cantigas, collected under Alfonso X 51, depict a multicultural orchestra that reflects the Iberian peninsula's status as a crossroads of Christian, Muslim, and Jewish cultures.34 The illustrations show European instruments like the vielle, harp, and bagpipe playing alongside Middle Eastern instruments like the Oud (Arabic lute), Qanun (Arabic zither), and Rabab (bowed Arabic fiddle).51

This proves that the "folk" sound of 13th-century Spain, with its Arabic instrumentation, would have sounded vastly different from the "folk" sound of 13th-century England (e.g., Sumer is icumen in 26) or 13th-century Germany (e.g., Palästinalied 20). Therefore, a creative practitioner must not only ask "When?" but also "Where?"

Section 4.5: Table 1: The Minstrel's Palette (Haut vs. Bas Instrumentation)

Instrument	Class (Haut/Bas)	Sound Character	Primary Function(s)	Key Sources
Lute	Bas	Plucked, soft, articulate	Song accompaniment (indoors), solo	1
Vielle (Fiddle)	Bas	Bowed, vocal-like, can drone	Song accompaniment, small dances	46
Harp	Bas	Plucked, gentle, resonant	Song accompaniment (court or home)	46
Recorder / Flute	Bas	Soft, breathy, simple	Solo melody, song accompaniment	1
Psaltery	Bas	Plucked, bright, zither-like	Song accompaniment	1
Portative Organ	Bas	Soft, sustained, "churchy"	Indoor (often sacred/courtly)	47
Shawm	Haut	Piercing, nasal, very loud	Outdoor dance, processions, ceremony	45
Bagpipe	Haut	Piercing, constant drone	Outdoor dance, processions, folk music	6
Tabor (Drum)	Haut	Rhythmic, high-pitched	Paired with pipe 45 for dance	45
Hurdy-Gurdy	Haut	Bowed, strong drone, rhythmic	Dance, storytelling (outdoors)	2
Trumpet	Haut	Loud, brash, military	Ceremony, processions, military	46
Cymbals / Bells	Haut	Percussive, sharp, metallic	Rhythmic accent, ceremony	55

Part V: The Creator's Atelier: 100 Prompts for Generating a Medieval Folk Song

This section provides a practical workshop for a "Creative Practitioner." The 100 prompts are structured as a creative curriculum, allowing for the construction of a new, authentic-sounding medieval song based on the musicological principles established in Parts I-IV of this report. The prompts are categorized by compositional layer.

Prompts 1-20: Foundational Choices (Mode, Texture, and Structure)

Focus: Setting the core harmonic, textural, and formal "DNA" of the song.

1. Compose a monophonic (single-line) melody in D-Dorian mode (D-E-F-G-A-B-C) for a "melancholic or mysterious" feel.20

2. Compose a monophonic melody in G-Mixolydian mode (G-A-B-C-D-E-F) for a "folky, Celtic" feel.43

3. Compose a monophonic melody in E-Phrygian mode (E-F-G-A-B-C-D) for an "exotic, dark, Spanish" feel.43

4. Compose a monophonic melody in A-Aeolian mode (A-B-C-D-E-F-G), the natural minor scale.44

5. Compose a monophonic melody in F-Lydian mode (F-G-A-B-C-D-E), noting its "fantastical" feel.43

6. Compose a monophonic melody in C-Ionian mode (C-D-E-F-G-A-B), the modern major scale.44

7. Base your entire composition on a single, sustained drone note (e.g., a "D" pitch) held by one instrument.3

8. Texture your piece using only monophony: a single, unaccompanied vocal line.14

9. Texture your piece as a monophonic melody + drone, the foundational "folk" texture.3

10. Structure your song in strophic (AAA) form.35 Write one 8-bar melody to be repeated for all verses.

11. Structure your song as a strophic-with-refrain (verse-chorus-verse-chorus).3

12. Structure your song as a narrative ballad 9: use a strophic (AAA) form intended for many verses of text.

13. Structure your piece as a call-and-response song 38: a 2-bar "call" (soloist) followed by a 2-bar "response" (group).

14. Structure your song using the formes fixes virelai form: A (refrain) bbba (verse) A (refrain).18

15. Structure your song using the formes fixes rondeau form (e.g., ABaAabAB).

16. Structure your piece as a rota (a round), like "Sumer is icumen in".39 Write a melody that can be sung against itself, starting 2 or 4 beats later.

17. Compose a melody using parallel organum: add a second voice that follows the melody at a fixed interval (e.g., a perfect 5th).14

18. Compose a short piece using free organum: two voices moving in both parallel and contrary motion.14

19. Compose a piece with a drone-like accompaniment: have one instrument play a simple, repeating 2-note pattern (ostinato) under the melody.

20. Combine choices: Compose a strophic (AAA) song in G-Mixolydian mode over a G-drone.

Prompts 21-40: Rhythmic Identity and Poetic Meter

Focus: Defining the "pulse" and "groove" based on poetic modes and dance forms.

21. Set your melody to a strict Trochaic meter (LONG-short, LONG-short, $q e q e$), creating a "lively" dance feel.16

22. Set your melody to a strict Iambic meter (short-LONG, short-LONG, $e q e q$), creating a "marching" or "processional" feel.16

23. Set your melody to a strict Dactylic meter (LONG-short-short, $q. e q$), creating a "waltz-like" or "lilting" 6/8 feel.16

24. Create a melody for an instrumental estampie (dance) with a "lively, rhythmic character" and a clear, repeating beat.10

25. Compose a chanson melody, allowing the rhythm to be free and fluid, following the natural stresses of the (non-rhythmic) poetry.

26. Compose a melody using the 6th rhythmic mode (tribrachic, $e e e$), a fast "triplet" feel.

27. Compose a melody with a "clear beat" but no strong "backbeat," avoiding modern syncopation.16

28. Write a melody where the rhythm is derived entirely from the syllables of the text (syllabic setting).

29. Write a melody that uses melisma (multiple pitches sung on one syllable).3

30. Write a vocal melody, then write a separate rhythmic accompaniment for a tabor (drum).45

31. Write a dance tune in 3/4 time (a tempus perfectum feel).

32. Write a dance tune in 4/4 or 2/4 time (a tempus imperfectum feel).

33. Practice Ars Nova rhythmic complexity: write a line with subdivisions of the beat (e.g., 16th notes).5

34. Write a melody using a "Scotch snap" (a short, accented note followed by a longer one), a common folk rhythm.

35. Compose a melody with a repeating, 4-bar rhythmic phrase.

36. Compose a "work song" rhythm: a steady pulse that mimics a physical action (e.g., hammering, rowing).

37. Compose a melody for a "carol" (a medieval dance-song) with a clear, joyous rhythm.

38. Transcribe the poetic meter of a ballad (e.g., 8 syllables, then 6) and use that as the rhythmic skeleton for your melody.

39. Write a melody and "set" it to two different rhythmic modes (e.g., Trochaic and Iambic) to see how the feel changes.

40. Combine choices: Compose an estampie 10 using a fast Trochaic rhythm 16 in D-Dorian mode.20

Prompts 41-60: Lyrical Themes and Narrative

Focus: The story, theme, and content of the lyrics, drawing from surviving genres.

41. Write lyrics for a narrative ballad 9 about a local folklore legend (e.g., a "demon spider," a "graoully," or "cocatrix" 12).

42. Write a drinking song (Goliardic style) for a tavern, with a simple, "eminently singable" Latin or vernacular refrain (e.g., "In taberna!").4

43. Write a chanson of courtly love 11 from a knight to a distant, unattainable lady.24

44. Write a song about daily life 11: a "ploughing song," a "spinning song," or a "harvest song."

45. Write a reverdie (re-greening) celebrating the arrival of spring or summer, like Sumer is icumen in.26

46. Write a satirical fabliau: a humorous, bawdy, or "gross" story about a foolish merchant, a lecherous priest, or a clever peasant.23

47. Write an epic song (a chanson de geste) about a historical battle or heroic knight, in the style of The Song of Roland.24

48. Write a pilgrim song about a spiritual journey, in the style of Palästinalied.28

49. Write a ballad about the folk hero Robin Hood.12

50. Write a song about a mythical creature (a dragon, a gryphon, a sea monster).12

51. Write a song about a political event (a new tax, a local rebellion, a royal marriage).11

52. Write a song of "mystical" or "magical" content, like "Nottamun Town" or "King Henry".12

53. Write a song from the perspective of a Minnesänger (a German troubadour).20

54. Write a song of praise for a patron (a wealthy lord or lady).19

55. Write a song that tells a moral fable (e.g., "Dives and Lazarus").4

56. Write a carol (a dance song), with a refrain about winter, Christmas, or May Day.38

57. Write a lullaby from a peasant mother to her child.

58. Write a satire of courtly life from a minstrel's perspective.

59. Write a song lamenting a plague, crusade, or other disaster.

60. Combine choices: Write the lyrics for a narrative ballad 9 about a local legend 12 intended to be sung as a strophic (AAA) song.35

Prompts 61-80: Poetic Form and Devices

Focus: The "nuts and bolts" of the poetry, including rhyme, meter, and narrative devices.

61. Write your 4-line ballad stanza using a classic ABCB rhyme scheme.33

62. Write your 4-line stanza using a simple AABB (couplet) rhyme scheme.

63. Write your 4-line stanza using an ABAB (alternating) rhyme scheme.

64. Write a verse using alliterative verse (Germanic style), where at least 3 stressed words in a line start with the same sound.30

65. Create a simple, 1-line refrain (e.g., "Sing, cuckoo!") that is sung at the end of every verse.3

66. Use vivid, sensory language (smells, sounds, feelings) to set a scene (e.g., "the smell of hay," "the sound of the drum").29

67. Use repetition of a key phrase at the beginning of each stanza (anaphora) to build tension.

68. Use repetition of a key phrase at the end of each stanza (epistrophe).9

69. Write lyrics that tell a story with a "suspenseful" build-up and an "unexpected twist".29

70. Write lyrics that require the singer to use dramatic gestures and facial expressions to convey the meaning.29

71. Write lyrics that require the singer to "portray different characters" by varying their voice (pitch, volume).29

72. Write your song in ballad meter (alternating lines of 4 and 3 iambic feet).

73. Write lyrics for the complex AA bbba virelai rhyme scheme.31

74. Write a song that personifies an animal or object (e.g., the cuckoo in "Sumer is icumen in").

75. Use a "kenning" (a compound metaphor, e.g., "whale-road" for sea).30

76. Write a song that adapts to the audience 29: include a verse that praises the "lords and ladies here."

77. Write a song with internal rhymes within a single line (e.g., "The crow did show the way to go").

78. Write a "flyting" song (a song of insults) between two characters.

79. Write a song that uses a dialogue format between two singers (or one singer playing two roles).

80. Combine choices: Write a 4-line (quatrain) stanza 9 with an ABCB rhyme scheme 33 that uses alliteration 30 in the first line.

Prompts 81-100: Instrumentation, Scenario, and Persona

Focus: Placing the song in a real-world context using the Haut/Bas principle and performer personas.

81. Scenario: Indoor Tavern. Arrange your song for a Bas ensemble: solo voice and lute.10

82. Scenario: Village Green Dance. Arrange your song for a Haut ensemble: pipe and tabor.45

83. Scenario: Outdoor Festival. Arrange your song for a loud Haut band: shawm, bagpipe, and tabor.45

84. Scenario: Minstrel Storytelling. Arrange your song for a solo hurdy-gurdy 6 or vielle (using the drone string) 46 to accompany a vocal.

85. Scenario: Courtly Love. Arrange your song for a "high art" Bas ensemble: solo voice, harp, and recorder.1

86. Scenario: Civic Procession. Arrange your song for a Haut ensemble of trumpets and shawms.46

87. Scenario: Spanish Court. Arrange your song for a multicultural ensemble (from the Cantigas): vielle, oud, and qanun.51

88. Scenario: Church Pageant. Arrange your song for a portative organ and bells.47

89. Persona: Troubadour (Noble). Your song must be a (Prompt 43) courtly love chanson, with a (Prompt 73) complex virelai rhyme scheme.

90. Persona: Jongleur (Entertainer). Your song must be a (Prompt 24) rhythmic estampie, played on (Prompt 82) pipe and tabor.

91. Persona: Minstrel (Tavern). Your song must be a (Prompt 42) drinking song, with a (Prompt 65) simple refrain, sung rowdily.

92. Persona: Peasant (Amateur). Your song must be about (Prompt 44) daily life, (Prompt 8) monophonic, and sung with no accompaniment.

93. Persona: Goliard (Cleric). Your song must be a (Prompt 46) satirical fabliau in Latin.23

94. Persona: Crusader (Soldier). Your song must be a (Prompt 48) pilgrim song, in (Prompt 1) D-Dorian mode.

95. Persona: Town Wait (Watchman). Your song is performed on a shawm from a tower to signal the hour.18

96. Final Project 1: Create a (Prompt 12) ballad about (Prompt 49) Robin Hood, in (Prompt 2) G-Mixolydian mode, with an (Prompt 61) ABCB rhyme scheme, performed by a (Prompt 91) tavern minstrel with a (Prompt 84) vielle.

97. Final Project 2: Create a (Prompt 24) lively estampie dance, in (Prompt 1) D-Dorian mode, with a (Prompt 21) strong Trochaic rhythm, played by a (Prompt 83) Haut band of shawm and tabor.

98. Final Project 3: Create a (Prompt 43) courtly love song, in (Prompt 14) virelai form, sung by a (Prompt 89) troubadour and accompanied by a (Prompt 85) Bas ensemble of lute and harp.

99. Final Project 4: Create a (Prompt 45) seasonal carol, using a (Prompt 13) call-and-response structure, in (Prompt 6) C-Ionian mode ("Sumer is icumen in" style 26).

100. Final Project 5: Create a (Prompt 47) chanson de geste (epic), sung (Prompt 8) monophonically, using (Prompt 64) alliterative verse and (Prompt 69) dramatic storytelling techniques.

Part VI: Conclusions

This musicological analysis reveals that the "medieval folk song" is a complex aesthetic construct rather than a single, recoverable genre. The music of the "simple society" 6 was part of a non-literate oral tradition that is largely lost.4 The modern "folk" sound is an amalgamation of surviving secular music from the period, including narrative ballads, dance tunes, and the "lower-status" repertoire of the professional minstrel.4

The essential elements for a modern "Creative Practitioner" seeking to replicate this sound are clear and hierarchical:

1. Tonality is Paramount: The single most effective tool is the use of modes (not modern scales). The "folky" sound is achieved through the Dorian mode (minor with a major 6th) and the Mixolydian mode (major with a flat 7th).20

2. Texture is Foundational: The core medieval texture is monophony (a single melody line) supported by a drone.3 This "melody + drone" structure is built into the era's key folk instruments (bagpipe, hurdy-gurdy, vielle).2

3. Structure Must Serve Function: The "folk" structure is the strophic (AAA) ballad form.32 Its simplicity is a functional choice, designed to serve as a vehicle for a long, changing narrative (the true focus of the song).9 This is often in a quatrain (4-line) stanza with a simple ABCB rhyme scheme.33

4. Instrumentation is Contextual: The most critical rule for arrangement is the Haut (loud/outdoor) vs. Bas (soft/indoor) divide.47 The choice of instrument (e.g., shawm vs. lute) is dictated entirely by the performance venue and function (dance vs. song).

5. The Persona is the Minstrel: The historical archetype for the "folk" performer is the professional, low-status, multi-talented minstrel or jongleur, who performed everything from rowdy dance music and bawdy fabliaux to the art-songs of the nobility.19

Authenticity lies not in the impossible task of recreating a lost peasant song, but in the conscious, informed synthesis of these surviving elements. By building a song from a modal melody, placing it in a strophic structure, and arranging it for the correct Haut or Bas ensemble, a modern creator can effectively and powerfully evoke the "medieval folk" aesthetic.

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