Religious and Social History of Droop Mountain and the Little Levels of Pocahontas County

 

The Sacred Plateau: An Extensive Religious and Social History of Droop Mountain and the Little Levels of Pocahontas County

The religious history of Droop Mountain, situated within the "Little Levels" of Pocahontas County, West Virginia, is a complex narrative that mirrors the broader American experience of frontier expansion, denominational schism, and the transformative impact of the American Civil War. Rising to an elevation of 3,136 feet, this topographical landmark has served not merely as a site of strategic military conflict, but as a central node in the spiritual geography of the Greenbrier Valley. Originally referred to as "Drooping Mountain" due to its distinctive crouched profile when viewed from the valley floor, the mountain became a symbolic boundary between the settled east and the rugged, unchurched west. The historical development of religion in this region is characterized by the tension between institutionalized faith—represented by the early Presbyterian and Methodist establishments—and the radical, individualistic piety of the frontier settlers. To understand the spiritual evolution of Droop Mountain is to analyze the intersection of ethnic migration, the logistical innovations of the circuit rider system, the ecstatic fervor of the camp meeting tradition, and the hallowing of the landscape through both ritual and blood.  

The Primal Schism: Marlin, Sewell, and the Genesis of Appalachian Religious Autonomy

The European religious history of the region begins with a foundational narrative that prefigures the fiercely independent nature of Appalachian faith. In 1749, Jacob Marlin and Stephen Sewell established themselves at the present site of Marlinton, representing the first known European residence in the area. While their initial cohabitation in a single cabin suggests a cooperative frontier existence, local tradition emphasizes that a profound disagreement over religious doctrine eventually rendered their shared living arrangement untenable. This dispute resulted in Sewell’s relocation to a nearby hollowed-out sycamore tree, where he resided while Marlin remained in the cabin.  

This incident is more than a colorful local legend; it serves as a microcosm of the religious pluralism and radical dissent that would define the region. The Marlin-Sewell split illustrates a recurring theme in the history of Droop Mountain: the prioritization of personal theological conviction over physical comfort or social cohesion. Despite their differences, the two men continued to live peacefully in proximity, establishing a precedent for the "live and let live" ethos that allowed diverse denominations—Presbyterians, Methodists, Baptists, and Brethren—to eventually coexist within the narrow confines of the Little Levels. This early encounter with religious friction occurred in a landscape devoid of formal ecclesiastical oversight, placing the burden of spiritual interpretation directly on the individual—a characteristic that would persist well into the era of organized church expansion.  

The Scots-Irish Hegemony and the Presbyterian Establishment

The primary engine of organized religion in the vicinity of Droop Mountain was the migration of the Scots-Irish (or Ulster Scots), who began arriving in the late 1730s and 1740s. These settlers were predominantly devout Presbyterians, carrying with them a Calvinist world-view that emphasized the sovereignty of God and the necessity of an educated clergy. As they moved south through the Valley of Virginia and then west across the Alleghenies, they brought a structured form of worship that provided a stabilizing social framework for the burgeoning frontier communities.  

The Institutional Anchor: Oak Grove Presbyterian Church

In the Little Levels—the rolling upland plain at the base of Droop Mountain—the Oak Grove Presbyterian Church stands as the oldest Presbyterian organization in Pocahontas County, founded in 1783. The church’s early history was marked by the challenges of isolation; for its first thirty-seven years, the congregation lacked a permanent pastor, relying instead on "stated supply" or visiting ministers from distant fields. This period of "vacancy" highlights the persistent difficulty of maintaining professional clerical standards in a remote mountain environment.  

The reorganization of the church in 1830 by Rev. S. L. Graham marked a shift toward institutional maturity. At that time, the congregation numbered only nine members, including influential local deacons such as Josiah Beard, George Poage, and John Jordan. The Beard family, in particular, became central to the Presbyterian identity of the region. Josiah Beard, a ruling elder at Falling Spring and the first clerk of Pocahontas County, exemplifies the overlap between religious leadership and civic authority in the 19th century.  

Table 1: Early Presbyterian Leadership and Organizational Milestones

Year	Milestone	Primary Figures	Impact on Community
1783	Initial Organization	Early Scots-Irish Settlers	Established a formal religious claim in the Little Levels.
1793	Formal Reorganization	Rev. John McCue	Provided the first sustained ministerial oversight.
1830	Second Reorganization	Rev. S. L. Graham	Transitioned the church from a frontier mission to a permanent body.
1834	Birth of Absalom Sydenstricker	Andrew & Frances Sydenstricker	Produced the region's most prominent missionary to China.
1860	Peak of Early Academy	Rev. M. D. Dunlap	Linked religious instruction with classical education in Hillsboro.

 

The architectural evolution of Oak Grove—from a "rude temple" to a substantial brick structure in Hillsboro—reflects the increasing economic prosperity of the Presbyterian merchant and landowner class. The church also fostered educational initiatives, most notably through the Hillsboro Academy, where ministers like Rev. Joseph Brown and Rev. M. D. Dunlap served as principals, integrating theological training with a curriculum designed for the local elite.  

Methodism and the Revolution of Itinerancy

While Presbyterianism provided a stable core for the established families, Methodism became the populist religious force of Droop Mountain. The success of the Methodist movement was predicated on the "circuit rider" system, a highly mobile organizational structure designed to match the dispersed and transient settlement patterns of the Appalachian frontier.  

The Greenbrier Circuit and the White Pole Church

By the 1780s, the Greenbrier Circuit had been established, providing the first systematic Methodist presence in the southeastern region of present-day West Virginia. The foundational structure for this movement in the Little Levels was the "White Pole Meeting House," believed to be the first church building erected west of the Alleghenies. Dedicated by its builder, McNeel, as a "rude temple" for his neighbors, the White Pole Church eventually became the site of Wesley Chapel United Methodist Church in Hillsboro.  

The circuit riders—such as John Smith, Henry Bascom, and Asa Shinn—were the spiritual lifeblood of the mountain. These men traveled hundreds of miles on horseback, visiting remote cabins and "classes" of believers. Their ministry was one of extreme sacrifice; the rigors of the circuit were such that nearly half of early riders died before reaching age 33. Their presence in the Droop Mountain area ensured that even the most isolated families had access to the sacraments and religious literature, often distributed from the very saddlebags that carried the riders' meager belongings.  

The Great Schism and Regional Tensions

The Methodist experience in the region was also defined by the national split over slavery in 1844, which resulted in the formation of the Methodist Episcopal Church and the Methodist Episcopal Church, South. Droop Mountain sat at the intersection of these two jurisdictional bodies. Generally, churches formed by the Holston Conference (centered in Tennessee) aligned with the Southern branch, while those from the Redstone Conference (centered in Pennsylvania) remained with the Northern branch. This denominational division created a lingering social friction that would erupt during the Civil War, as congregations found themselves divided by both theology and political allegiance.  

Tabernacles in the Groves: The Camp Meeting Tradition on Droop Mountain

One of the most profound religious phenomena associated with Droop Mountain was the camp meeting. Popularized by Methodists but also utilized by Presbyterians and Baptists, these multi-day outdoor revivals transformed the natural landscape into a sacred space. Droop Mountain was specifically noted as a prominent "campground," alongside sites like Muddy Creek Mountain and Brushy Ridge.  

Ethnography of the Encampment

The camp meetings on Droop Mountain were highly organized seasonal rituals. Families would travel for miles, bringing provisions for weeks of worship. The physical layout typically involved log cabins or "tents" arranged on three sides of a square, with a central "tabernacle" or preaching shed occupying the fourth side. Inside the enclosure, trees provided shade and stumps served as benches, creating an environment that pioneer participants viewed as "God's first temples".  

These gatherings were characterized by intense emotional fervor and what were known as "the exercises"—physical manifestations of spiritual ecstasy that included falling, jerking, barking, and dancing. For the isolated mountain population, these meetings served a dual purpose: they were a vehicle for radical conversion and a vital social outlet. However, they were also sites of controversy; detractors often pointed to the disorder and the "sexual mischief" that occasionally occurred on the periphery of the holy ground.  

Table 2: Comparison of Frontier Denominational Characteristics

Feature	Presbyterianism	Methodism	Brethren (Dunkards)
Governance	Local elders & Presbyteries	Bishops & Itinerant Circuits	Congregational & Pacifist
Clergy	Educated, "Settled" pastors	Mobile Circuit Riders	Lay ministers, often self-taught
Worship Style	Liturgical, Intellectual	Emotional, Revivialist	Simple, "Plain"
Key Rituals	Communion Seasons	Camp Meetings & Love Feasts	Feet Washing & Immersion
Primary Base	Little Levels Landowners	General Frontier Population	Brush Run & Back Mountain

 

The Crucible of Conflict: The Civil War and the Sacralization of Blood

The Battle of Droop Mountain, fought on November 6, 1863, was a transformative event that permanently integrated the mountain's topography into the religious and memorial consciousness of West Virginia. As one of the largest and most decisive engagements in the state, the Union victory led by Brigadier General William W. Averell over Confederate Brigadier General John Echols ended organized Southern resistance in the region.  

The Church as a Theater of Trauma

In the immediate aftermath of the battle, the ecclesiastical and domestic structures of Hillsboro and the Little Levels were drafted into medical service. The Joseph Beard House, a Federal-period residence, was utilized by General Averell as a primary hospital, where Mrs. Nannie Beard tended to four double beds of wounded in 20' by 20' rooms. The Hillsboro Academy and various local church basements (including that of the Methodist Church) were similarly repurposed.  

The psychological and spiritual impact of this transformation was profound. For the local congregations, the sight of their sanctuaries filled with "sickening piles" of amputated limbs and pews being torn out to create bedsteads or coffins fundamentally altered the meaning of sacred space. The trauma of the battle became part of the congregational memory, particularly for the Southern Methodist and Presbyterian families who found themselves under Federal occupation.  

Hallowed Ground and the Civil Religion of Memory

In the decades following the war, Droop Mountain transitioned from a site of carnage to a site of pilgrimage. The establishment of the Droop Mountain Battlefield State Park in 1928—West Virginia’s first state park—represented a secular form of sacralization. The work of the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) in 1935 was instrumental in this process; they constructed footpaths specifically designed to highlight "battle graves" and monuments, effectively turning the battlefield into a cemetery of honor.  

The presence of "ghostly apparitions"—such as the legendary headless Confederate soldier reportedly seen near the cemetery by Edgar Walton in 1920—further illustrates how the mountain’s history was mythologized through a supernatural lens, blending military history with folk religion. The mountain became a space where the living communicated with the dead, a "hallowed" ground that transcended denominational boundaries.  

Reconstruction, Race, and Religious Autonomy: Pleasant Green AME

The post-war era saw the emergence of a vital new thread in the religious tapestry of the region: independent African American faith. The Pleasant Green Methodist Episcopal Church in Hillsboro, built in 1888, stands as the most prominent monument to this development.  

The "Patchwork" Sanctuary

Pleasant Green was a branch of the African Methodist Episcopal (AME) Church, a denomination founded in Philadelphia that gained traction in West Virginia after emancipation. The church was constructed on a site specifically designated for the use of the Black families in and around Hillsboro. Its construction was a communal effort, using scavenged and modest materials to create what local historians call a "patchwork church"—a structure whose value lay in the collaborative faith of its builders rather than its architectural grandeur.  

For nearly a century, Pleasant Green served as the social and educational heart of the local Black community, particularly during the era of segregation when the church basement also functioned as a schoolhouse. The survival of this church into the modern era, despite periods of neglect and severe weather damage, symbolizes the resilience of the African American spiritual tradition in the face of systemic marginalization.  

German Pietism and the Brethren Influence

In addition to the dominant Presbyterian and Methodist traditions, the Droop Mountain area was influenced by German settlers who brought with them the tenets of the Brethren (Dunkards) and Lutheranism.  

The Peace Church Tradition

The Brethren, characterized by their "plain" dress and rejection of modern assimilation, found a foothold in the more isolated sections of the county, such as Brush Run and Back Mountain. Allen Calhoun, the first Brethren minister in the area, moved to the region in the late 19th century and established a ministry centered on the "Love Feast"—a communal ritual involving foot washing and the Lord’s Supper. The Hevener Church of the Brethren, built in the early 1900s, served as a center for this tradition, which offered a pacifist alternative to the more bellicose theological strains of the Civil War era.  

The Lutheran Diaspora and the Beard Lineage

The history of the Beard family also reveals the intersection of German Lutheranism and Scots-Irish Presbyterianism. While Zacharias Beard was a prominent German Lutheran in the Shenandoah Valley, his descendants who migrated to the Little Levels were often absorbed into the Presbyterian church. This highlights a second-order insight into frontier religion: in the absence of a specific denominational structure (like a Lutheran church in the Greenbrier Valley), settlers would often choose the "closest fit" in terms of status and theology, leading to the gradual assimilation of German families into the Presbyterian elite.  

Vernacular Architecture and the Architecture of Devotion

The physical remains of religious life on Droop Mountain are primarily vernacular in style, reflecting the practical needs and aesthetic limits of the mountain community. Churches like the "Old Droop Church" near Beard and the various chapels in the Little Levels often featured clapboard siding, corrugated metal roofs, and square cupolas.  

Table 3: Significant Religious Structures and Their Status

Structure	Location	Construction	Style/Notes
White Pole Meeting House	Hillsboro	Pre-Revolution	First church west of Alleghenies; now Wesley Chapel.
Oak Grove Presbyterian	Hillsboro	1783 / 1910	Oldest Presbyterian body; prominent brick structure.
Pleasant Green AME	Hillsboro	1888	Historic African American "patchwork" church.
Old Droop Church	Beard	Vernacular	Notable cemetery for Cochran/Hannah families.
Emmanuel Methodist	Bruffey's Creek	1889 / 1899	Also known as Bruffeys Creek Church; stood until recent decades.
Woods Poage Chapel	Poage Lane	1919	Constructed using salvaged materials from Winterburn.
Beard Chapel	Beard	1922	Presbyterian mission church.

 

The architectural details of these churches—such as the decorative scrollwork and diamond-shaped shingles found on some vernacular-styled buildings—suggest that even in a utilitarian environment, there was a desire to express the sacred through craftsmanship. The "Old Droop Church," located a short distance from the Locust Creek covered bridge, remains a critical site of local memory, even as its congregation has merged with other Methodist sects.  

The Geography of the Dead: Cemeteries as Religious Maps

In the history of Droop Mountain, the cemetery is perhaps the most enduring religious document. The Little Levels and the surrounding slopes are dotted with burial grounds that range from established church cemeteries to isolated family plots.  

The Little Levels Necropolis

Volume 6 of the Pocahontas County cemetery listings, titled "Little Levels," provides an exhaustive survey of these sites. The cemeteries here are organized by neighborhood and road, reflecting the way kinship and proximity dictated the social order of both life and death. The "Old Droop Church Cemetery" contains burials like that of Edith Callahan (1888-1965), while the "Emmanuel Church Cemetery" on Bruffey's Creek marks the final resting place of the Bruffey and Morgan families.  

Table 4: Key Historic Cemeteries in the Droop Mountain Region

Cemetery Name	Primary Families	Religious/Historic Note
Oak Grove Cemetery	Beards, Poages, Sydenstrickers	Contains early Presbyterian elite and coffin sale records.
Confederate Graves	Unnamed Soldiers	Located on the battlefield; highlighted by CCC.
Denmar Sanitarium	Black patients/residents	Associated with the state tuberculosis hospital for African Americans.
Emmanuel Church Cem.	Bruffeys, Morgans, Sparks	Located on Bruffey's Creek; linked to ME South history.
Old Droop Church Cem.	Cochrans, Hannahs, Barretts	Family-centered plot near the Locust Creek covered bridge.

 

The burial of infants, such as the child dashed to death by Indians in 1765 near Marlin’s Run, underscores the brutal reality of early frontier life and the way tragedy was consecrated through burial. These grave sites are not merely records of mortality; they are anchors of identity in a landscape that has undergone dramatic shifts in land use and population density.  

The Missionary Impulse: Absalom Sydenstricker and Global Impact

A uniquely significant outcome of the religious culture of the Little Levels was the global missionary career of Absalom Sydenstricker. Born in a Federal-style home in Hillsboro in 1834, Absalom was the product of the deep Presbyterian tradition fostered at Oak Grove. He eventually became a prominent missionary to China, illustrating how the intense piety of the Appalachian mountain region was not just inward-looking but possessed a global evangelical reach. His daughter, the Nobel Prize-winning author Pearl S. Buck, spent her formative years in China but returned to her family's home in Hillsboro, where her maternal family (the Stultings) had settled to escape religious discrimination in Holland. This international connection positions Droop Mountain within a much larger network of 19th-century Protestant expansionism.  

Conclusion: The Enduring Spiritual Tapestry of the Plateau

The history of religion in Droop Mountain and the Little Levels is a synthesis of landscape, conflict, and congregational resilience. From the initial primitive dissent of Marlin and Sewell to the expansive organizational networks of the circuit riders and the hallowed memory of the 1863 battlefield, the region's spiritual life has been inextricably linked to its physical topography. The mountain has functioned as a site of seasonal revival, a theater of war, and a permanent repository for the dead. The transition from log "meeting houses" to brick institutional churches reflects the broader stabilization of the West Virginia frontier, yet the persistence of "patchwork" structures like Pleasant Green AME and abandoned vernacular chapels ensures that the diverse, independent voices of the mountain’s past are not forgotten. Today, as a designated Dark Sky Park, Droop Mountain continues to offer a space for contemplation that mirrors the "forest tabernacles" of the 19th-century camp meetings, suggesting that the mountain's spiritual significance remains as enduring as its crouched and ancient profile.