Create an open letter to the County Commission of Pocahontas County about the decision to close the local landfill and install a transfer system to another county. Consider the impact of the increased diesel emissions on the air, the increased cost of the Greenbox fee, the increase in illegal dumping. Analyze the rationale for expanding our current landfill.
You are the mayor of Frost, West Virginia. Write a letter of apology to a disgruntled citizen from out-of-state who got a ticket in your town for running a red light. Explain the purpose of the red light at the intersection of the road at Bessie Gray's store. Emphasize that the town council is trying to control traffic congestion as people pull into traffic after a day of shopping at the new Dollar Store. Copy this letter to Officer Dipstick.
Research the history of the Pocahontas County, West Virginia. Focus on the fiscal aspects. Analyze the 2026 fiscal situation with that of the the previous years. Explore the decisions which led to the current inability to afford a new landfill and the necessity to haul the material via a transfer method.
Research the history of the Greenbrier County, West Virginia. Focus on the proposed expansion of their sanitary landfill. Is there karst terrain in the area? Compare this to the karst terrain of Pocahontas County. Discuss the rationale for the expansion of the Greenbrier County landfill but not the Pocahontas County landfill.
Research the impact of Covid on Pocahontas County Schools. Focus on the quality of educational programming, fiscal impact and personnel.
Research the 2025 status of student school test scores in the state of West Virginia . Compare the state average of scores for subjects ELA (Language and Composition) and Math with that of 5 of the lowest performing schools in the state and that of the 5 highest performing in the state. Analyze the enrollment,the individual special attributes and individual capacities of the students as a collective body, the school's fiscal resources, the personnel and their qualifications. Analyze the impact of these factors on the school's test performance.
The Architecture of Presence: A Historical and Theological Survey of the Divine Habitation in Biblical Tradition
The concept of a localized, physical dwelling place for the Divine serves as one of the most significant architectural and theological motifs within the biblical corpus, reflecting a progressive revelation regarding the nature of the relationship between the Creator and the created. From the nomadic sanctuary of the Sinai wilderness to the grand edifices of Jerusalem, the narrative of the "house of God" encompasses a trajectory from the physical to the spiritual, culminating in the New Testament assertion that the ultimate habitation of the Divine is the redeemed human community. This study examines the historical development of these structures, the sacred objects they housed—most notably the Ark of the Covenant—their eventual destruction, and the radical transition toward a spiritualized temple located within the body of the individual believer and the corporate Church.
The Wilderness Tabernacle: The Proto-Architecture of Dwelling
The origins of a formal sanctuary for Yahweh are rooted in the post-Exodus experience of the Israelites, a period marked by the transition from Egyptian servitude to the establishment of a covenantal identity. Around 1450 B.C., following their liberation, the Israelites were commanded to construct a portable temple known as the Tabernacle, or Mishkan in Hebrew, a term that literally signifies a "dwelling place". The importance of this structure in the biblical narrative is underscored by the immense textual space dedicated to its design; no fewer than 50 chapters across the Pentateuch—including 13 in Exodus, 18 in Leviticus, 13 in Numbers, and two in Deuteronomy—exhaustively detail its blueprints, materials, and liturgical functions.
Design and Cosmic Mirroring
The Tabernacle was not merely a functional tent but was presented as a replica of a heavenly pattern revealed to Moses on Mount Sinai. This "pattern" (tabnît) underscored the theological weight of the structure as a microcosm of the universe, intended to resolve the tension of humanity’s exile from the presence of God initially experienced in the Garden of Eden. The building section within the larger narrative cycle is unified by the recurrent theme that Moses was shown this divine model, emphasizing that the structure reflected the perfectly ordered mind of God and was not a product of human invention.
The layout of the Tabernacle and its courtyard mirrored ancient Near Eastern religious structures but imbued them with specific Israelite theological content. The structure was designed as a broad room with its opening facing the East, capturing the light of the rising sun. The engineering involved acacia wood frames (qrš), each ten cubits in height, positioned side-by-side to create a rectangular sanctuary approximately 45 feet long, 15 feet wide, and 15 feet high. This frame was covered with four layers of fabric: an inner layer of fine twisted linen with blue, purple, and scarlet yarns; a layer of goat hair; a covering of ram skins dyed red; and an outer layer of durable leather.
| Layer | Material | Symbolic/Practical Significance |
| Inner Lining | Fine linen, blue, purple, scarlet yarns | Represented the beauty and royalty of the inner presence. |
| Second Layer | Goat hair | Standard tent-making material for durability in the desert. |
| Third Layer | Ram skins dyed red | Suggested sacrificial overtones and added protection. |
| Outer Covering | Durable leather (possibly tachash) | Provided a weatherproof exterior for the harsh Sinai environment. |
The Tabernacle’s structure facilitated a graduation of holiness, where the environment became increasingly "hot" or sacred as one approached the inner sanctum. This principle was reflected in the materials used: the outer courtyard featured bronze implements, while the inner Holy Place and the Most Holy Place utilized silver and gold. This structural reinforcement of holiness served as a constant reminder of the unapproachability of a holy God, summarized by the engraving on the High Priest’s diadem: "HOLINESS TO THE LORD".
The Furnishings and Their Liturgical Roles
The Tabernacle was divided into two primary rooms by a heavy veil embroidered with cherubim, symbolic guardians of the divine throne. The first room, the Holy Place, measured 15 by 30 feet and was accessible only to the priests of the tribe of Levi who performed daily ritual tasks. Within this room were three essential items: the seven-branched golden lampstand (Menorah), the table of showbread, and the golden altar of incense. The Menorah, positioned along the southern wall, possibly represented the seven luminary bodies visible to the naked eye, symbolizing God's illumination of the cosmos. The table held twelve loaves of bread, representing the twelve tribes of Israel in perpetual fellowship with their God.
Beyond the veil lay the Most Holy Place (Debir), a perfect square of 15 by 15 feet that housed the Ark of the Covenant. This room was the locus of the Shekinah glory, the visible manifestation of God’s presence that descended upon the sanctuary in the form of a cloud. Only the High Priest could enter this chamber, and only once a year on the Day of Atonement, highlighting the extreme sanctity of the space where the earthly and heavenly realms met.
| Furniture Item | Location | Primary Material | Symbolic Function |
| Bronze Altar | Outer Courtyard | Bronze-overlaid acacia | Site of animal sacrifices for atonement and thanksgiving. |
| Bronze Laver | Outer Courtyard | Bronze | Ritual washing for priests before entering the sanctuary. |
| Table of Showbread | Holy Place | Gold-overlaid acacia | Symbol of divine-human fellowship and provision. |
| Golden Lampstand | Holy Place | Solid Gold | Sole source of light, representing divine illumination. |
| Altar of Incense | Holy Place | Gold-overlaid acacia | Symbolized the prayers of the people rising to God. |
| Ark of the Covenant | Most Holy Place | Gold-overlaid acacia | The throne of God and depository of the Law. |
Scholarly comparisons have noted that the Tabernacle’s design also mirrored ancient Egyptian military camps, such as that of Ramesses II at the Battle of Kadesh. The placement of the Tabernacle in the center of the Israelite camp, surrounded by the tribes arranged in a specific order, reinforced the notion of Yahweh as the Commander of Israel's "armies" (ṣb'ot). The pillars of cloud and fire that directed the camp served as military signals, reminiscent of the fire signals used by contemporary military commanders like Alexander the Great.
The Ark of the Covenant: The Footstool of the Divine Throne
Central to the Tabernacle and later the Temple was the Ark of the Covenant (aron habbrit), a sacred chest that served as the most important symbol of the Jewish faith and the only physical manifestation of God on earth. Constructed by the craftsman Bezalel according to instructions given at Mount Sinai, the Ark was a box made of acacia wood, overlaid with pure gold both inside and out. It measured approximately 2.5 cubits in length, 1.5 cubits in width, and 1.5 cubits in height (roughly 45 by 27 by 27 inches).
Contents and Covenantal Identity
The Ark was primarily a container for the "Testimony," the stone tablets of the Law inscribed with the Ten Commandments. Through the centuries, biblical tradition and later commentaries have debated the exact contents; the consensus includes the tablets (both the broken first set and the intact second set), a golden jar of manna, and Aaron’s rod that budded. These items served as tangible reminders of God’s covenantal requirements, His miraculous provision in the desert, and the divine authorization of the Aaronic priesthood.
The cover of the Ark, known as the "Mercy Seat" (kapporet), was a separate slab of solid gold topped by two hammered-gold cherubim. These celestial figures faced each other with outstretched wings, creating a space where God promised to meet and communicate with His people. The Mercy Seat was the site of the most significant ritual in the Hebrew calendar: the sprinkling of sacrificial blood by the High Priest to atone for the nation’s sins. This act transformed the Ark from a box of judgment (containing the Law) into a throne of grace (the Mercy Seat).
The Peripatetic Presence: The Journey of the Ark
Designed for mobility, the Ark was never to have its carrying poles removed from its gold rings, reflecting the nomadic nature of early Israel. It led the people through the wilderness, searching for a resting place, and played a pivotal role in the conquest of Canaan. The journey of the Ark provides a geographical record of Israel’s early spiritual health and military fortunes.
| Chronological Event | Location | Outcome/Significance |
| Sinai Construction | Mt. Sinai | Established as the center of Israel’s worship. |
| Jordan Crossing | Jordan River | The river parted, allowing safe passage into the Promised Land. |
| Siege of Jericho | Jericho | Marching with the Ark led to the collapse of the city walls. |
| Central Sanctuary | Shiloh | Housed in the Tabernacle for 369 years during the period of Judges. |
| Philistine Capture | Battle of Aphek | Captured by Philistines; led to "Ichabod" (The glory has departed). |
| Philistine Exile | Ashdod, Gath, Ekron | Caused plagues and the collapse of the idol Dagon. |
| Return to Israel | Beth-shemesh | Returned on a cart; 70 men died for looking inside. |
| House of Abinadab | Kiriath-jearim | Remained for 20-120 years until the reign of David. |
| Temporary Stop | House of Obed-edom | David paused the transfer for 3 months after Uzzah’s death. |
| Final Preparation | City of David | Placed in a tent by David before the Temple construction. |
The odyssey of the Ark highlights the theological danger of treating the physical object as a talisman or lucky charm, a mistake the Israelites made during the battle at Aphek. Its movements also revealed the expansion of God's authority; even in the territory of the Philistines, the Ark exerted power, demonstrating that Yahweh was not a localized deity bound to a specific piece of land.
Solomon’s Temple: The Institutionalization of the Presence
With the stabilization of the Israelite monarchy under King David and the subsequent reign of King Solomon, the nomadic Tabernacle was replaced by a permanent structure in Jerusalem. Construction began in the 4th year of Solomon’s reign (c. 966 B.C.E.) on Mount Moriah, a site traditionally associated with the Binding of Isaac. This transition from tent to temple signaled a shift from a people on the move to an established nation-state with a centralized religious and political hub.
Construction, Diplomacy, and Labor
Solomon’s Temple was a monumental undertaking that required significant international cooperation and vast resources. Solomon entered into a treaty with King Hiram of Tyre, who provided skilled Phoenician craftsmen and cedar and cypress wood from Lebanon in exchange for vast quantities of wheat and pure olive oil. The biblical account notes that 3,300 officials oversaw the labor, which involved tens of thousands of workers in rotating shifts. Solomon's dedication to quality was such that he utilized hewn stones, cedar-lined walls, and massive amounts of gold, such that no stone was visible on the interior.
Architectural Features of the First Temple
The First Temple followed the tripartite layout of the Tabernacle but on a much grander scale. It was a langbau building (longer than it was wide), measuring 60 cubits in length and 20 in width, with a height of 30 cubits.
| Temple Section | Dimensions (Approx.) | Features and Furnishings |
| Ulam (Porch) | 20 x 10 cubits | Featured two massive bronze pillars named Boaz and Jachin. |
| Heikal (Sanctuary) | 40 x 20 x 30 cubits | Housed 10 golden lampstands, a golden altar, and the table of showbread. |
| Debir (Holy of Holies) | 20 x 20 x 20 cubits | A perfect gold-lined cube housing the Ark and two 15-foot gold cherubim. |
The Temple’s design was imbued with cosmic symbolism, intended to represent the universe as God’s true dwelling. The Holy of Holies represented heaven, while the sanctuary and courtyard represented the earthly and oceanic realms. The "Brazen Sea," a massive bronze basin 15 feet in diameter holding some 10,000 to 12,000 gallons of water, sat on twelve bronze oxen and served for the ritual purification of the priests. This immense structure stood for nearly 400 years, serving as the cultural and spiritual anchor for the Kingdom of Judah.
The Cataclysm of 586 B.C.E. and the Babylonian Exile
The destruction of Solomon’s Temple in 586 B.C.E. remains one of the most devastating events in Jewish history. Following a prolonged siege by the Babylonian army under King Nebuchadnezzar II, the city walls were breached, the Temple was looted of its treasures, and the building was burned to the ground. This event marked the end of the First Temple period and the beginning of the Babylonian Exile, a period of profound theological reflection for a people who had lost their king, their land, and their God’s dwelling place.
The destruction forced a radical rethinking of the nature of God's presence. Prophets like Ezekiel offered visions of the "glory of the Lord" departing from the Temple before its fall, suggesting that the building was not an inescapable cage for the Divine but a conditional home dependent on the people’s faithfulness. The fate of the Ark of the Covenant at this juncture is not explicitly recorded; it was notably absent from the inventory of items taken to Babylon (2 Kings 25:13-17), leading to the conclusion that it was lost or hidden before the city fell.
The Second Temple: Rebuilding Amidst Absence
The Second Temple period began with the Edict of Cyrus the Great in 538 B.C.E., which allowed the Jewish exiles to return to Jerusalem and rebuild their sanctuary. Completed around 516 B.C.E. under the governorship of Zerubbabel, this structure was significantly less grand than Solomon’s and was reportedly viewed with tears by the elders who remembered the former glory.
The Theological Significance of the Missing Ark
The Second Temple was fundamentally different from the first because it lacked several key sacred articles. According to Jewish tradition and the Talmud, the Second Temple was devoid of the Ark of the Covenant, the heavenly fire on the altar, the Shekinah (manifested presence), the Spirit of Prophecy (Urim and Thummim), and the holy anointing oil. The Holy of Holies remained an entirely empty room.
This absence was not merely a historical tragedy but had profound theological implications. The missing Ark forced a transition in the Israelite "stage of faith," preparing the hearts of the people for a time when worship would no longer be centered on a physical object or a specific mountain. As Jeremiah 3:16 prophesied, there would come a time when the Ark would no longer be talked about or missed, as God would establish a new covenant written on the hearts of the people.
Herod’s Renovation and the Climax of Material Splendor
Around 20-19 B.C.E., Herod the Great began an ambitious project to renovate and expand the Second Temple, aiming to gain political favor and leave a lasting architectural legacy. Herod’s Temple was an architectural marvel, featuring massive retaining walls (including the Western Wall), expansive courtyards, and a sanctuary of white stone and gold that "shone like a sun-lit mountain". The Temple Mount was doubled in size, becoming the largest religious sanctuary in the ancient world.
| Feature | Herodian Temple Detail | Significance |
| Enclosure | Expanded Temple Mount | Facilitated massive pilgrim crowds from the Diaspora. |
| Appearance | "Lion-shaped" facade | The anteroom extended to the sides like a maned lion (Ariel). |
| Walls | Massive hewn blocks | Demonstrated the technical prowess and wealth of the Flavian-Herodian era. |
| Function | Multi-functional center | Served as a site for worship, public assembly, and political gathering. |
Despite its physical grandeur, Herod’s Temple was the setting for the ultimate transition in the biblical narrative of dwelling. It was this building that Jesus of Nazareth visited and about which he made his most provocative claims regarding the "destruction of this temple" and its replacement with his own body.
The Roman Siege and the End of the Physical Cultus
In 70 C.E., following years of Jewish rebellion against Roman rule, the Second Temple was destroyed by the forces of Titus. According to the historian Josephus, the destruction was accidental, sparked by a soldier’s torch during the final assault, though other historians suggest it was a deliberate ideological act to eradicate both Jewish and early Christian identity.
The impact of 70 C.E. was transformative for Western religion:
For Judaism: The loss of the Temple meant the end of animal sacrifices and the priesthood. Leadership shifted to the Pharisees and later the Rabbis, who established centers of learning at Yavneh and prioritized the study of the Torah and the liturgy of the synagogue over physical ritual.
For Christianity: The destruction was interpreted as a divine validation of Jesus’ teachings and a sign that the "old administration" had been superseded by a new covenant. The loss of the physical center forced the fledgling Church to define itself as a spiritual body independent of the Jerusalem Temple.
Jesus Christ: The Incarnate Tabernacle
The New Testament introduces a radical shift in the theology of God’s dwelling. The Gospel of John begins with the assertion that the Logos became flesh and "tabernacled" (skenoo) among us. This choice of Greek vocabulary explicitly links the incarnation of Jesus to the wilderness Tabernacle; just as God lived in a tent in the wilderness, He now lived in a human body as the new "tent" of the Divine.
The Body as the New Temple
Jesus frequently utilized temple metaphors to explain his identity and mission. When he "cleansed" the Temple, he referred to it as "my Father’s house," yet he also claimed that his own body was the true Temple that would be raised in three days. This teaching suggested that the presence of God was no longer confined to a building of stone but was fully manifested in a person.
The tearing of the Temple veil at the moment of Jesus’ death (Matthew 27:51) is seen by theologians as the definitive symbolic act of this transition. It signaled that the Most Holy Place was no longer closed and that the physical Temple had been "spiritually vacated". In this new paradigm, Jesus acts as both the final sacrifice and the Great High Priest, providing direct access to the Divine without the need for an earthly intermediary or a physical building.
The Church and the Individual: The Spiritual Habitation
Following the resurrection and the descent of the Holy Spirit at Pentecost, the New Testament writers expanded the temple metaphor to include the community of believers and the individual Christian. This "new temple doctrine" posits that God has moved His residence from stone structures to human hearts.
The Individual as a Temple
The Apostle Paul, writing to the church in Corinth, addressed a community struggling with ethical issues by reminding them, "Do you not know that your bodies are temples of the Holy Spirit?" (1 Corinthians 6:19). This individualization of the temple concept carried a heavy moral mandate; because the believer is a "sacred space" where God resides, their conduct must reflect the holiness formerly associated with the Holy of Holies.
The Corporate Temple and "Living Stones"
Equally important is the corporate aspect of this indwelling. Paul describes the Church as "God’s building" and a "holy temple in the Lord," where Jews and Gentiles are being "built together into a dwelling place for God by His Spirit" (Ephesians 2:21-22). The Apostle Peter utilizes the metaphor of "living stones" to describe Christians who are being fitted together into a spiritual house to be a holy priesthood, offering spiritual sacrifices acceptable to God through Jesus Christ.
| Metaphor | Biblical Source | Theological Meaning |
| The Living Stone | 1 Peter 2:4 | Jesus Christ as the essential foundation and cornerstone. |
| Living Stones | 1 Peter 2:5 | Individual believers who are made alive in Christ and fitted into His plan. |
| Spiritual House | 1 Peter 2:5 | The collective community of the Church as the true Temple. |
| Holy Priesthood | 1 Peter 2:5 | The "priesthood of all believers" who have direct access to God. |
| Spiritual Sacrifices | 1 Peter 2:5 | Words and deeds motivated by a desire to glorify God, replacing animal sacrifice. |
This transition represents a democratization of the divine presence. In the Old Testament, the people went to the Temple to encounter God; in the New Testament, the "temple" goes to the people, as believers carry the presence of God into the world through their actions and words. The "spiritual sacrifices" offered in this new temple include the presentation of the physical body as a "living sacrifice," acts of charity, prayers, and the "sacrifice of praise".
Conflict and Continuity in Early Christian Thought
The early Christian attitude toward the Jerusalem Temple was complex. Even after the resurrection, the disciples continued to meet in the Temple courts for prayer and teaching. Paul himself showed respect for the Temple by participating in its rituals even while teaching that it had been superseded. However, as the movement became increasingly Gentile and the Temple was destroyed, the "supersessionist" view became dominant, arguing that the Temple was rightfully destroyed because it had served its purpose as a "type" or shadow of Christ.
Some early writers, such as the author of the Epistle of Barnabas, went so far as to reject the very idea that God would dwell in a building made by human hands, calling the physical Temple a pagan-like error and identifying the "true house of God" as the heart of the believer. This tension highlights the radical nature of the shift from a localized, physical cultus to a universal, spiritual presence.
The Eschatological Conclusion: God Dwelling with Man
The biblical narrative of the home for God concludes in the Book of Revelation with a vision of the "New Jerusalem" descending from heaven. In this final state, the author notes a striking absence: "I saw no temple in the city, for its temple is the Lord God the Almighty and the Lamb" (Revelation 21:22).
This eschatological vision represents the ultimate consummation of the "dwelling" theme that began in the Tabernacle. The purpose of the physical Temple—to provide a mediated access to the Divine for a sinful people—is fulfilled when the barrier of sin is completely removed. In the New Creation, the entire environment is "Most Holy," and the presence of God is unmediated, universal, and eternal. The "home for God" is no longer a tent, a stone building, or even the restricted body of a few, but the entirety of a redeemed humanity living in the light of the Divine Presence.
| Historical Period | Nature of "Home for God" | Manifestation of Presence |
| Wilderness | Tabernacle (Mishkan) | Cloud and Fire; Ark of the Covenant. |
| Monarchy | Solomon’s Temple | Shekinah Glory in the Holy of Holies. |
| Restoration | Second Temple (Zerubbabel) | Ritual consistency; Empty Holy of Holies. |
| Incarnation | Jesus Christ | "The Word became flesh and tabernacled". |
| Church Age | The Believer and the Church | Indwelling Holy Spirit; "Living Stones". |
| Eternity | The New Creation | Direct, unmediated presence; No Temple. |
The journey from the Tabernacle to the spiritual body of the Christian represents one of the most profound shifts in religious history. It moves from the tangible and localized to the spiritual and universal, reflecting a God who is not bound by human architecture but who seeks a home within human life itself. The historical development of these structures—their meticulous building, their tragic destructions, and their eventual spiritualization—serves as a blueprint for understanding the biblical vision of a God who relentlessly pursues a dwelling place among His people.
The Architecture of Presence: A Synthesis of Divine Dwelling in Biblical Tradition
Executive Summary
The provided text presents a comprehensive theological and historical survey of the concept of God's dwelling place within the biblical narrative. The core theme is a progressive revelation that charts a trajectory from tangible, localized sanctuaries to a universal, spiritual habitation. This evolution begins with the Wilderness Tabernacle, a portable and divinely-patterned microcosm of the cosmos designed for a nomadic people. Central to this and the subsequent First Temple was the Ark of the Covenant, the physical locus of God's presence. The establishment of Solomon’s Temple institutionalized this presence in a permanent, magnificent structure, cementing Jerusalem as the religious and political center of Israel.
A critical turning point occurs with the destruction of the First Temple in 586 B.C.E. and the subsequent construction of the Second Temple, which notably lacked the Ark of the Covenant and the manifest presence of God (the Shekinah). This absence initiated a profound theological shift, preparing for a non-physical mode of worship. The New Testament culminates this trajectory by presenting Jesus Christ as the incarnate Tabernacle—the ultimate and personal dwelling place of God. His death and resurrection rendered the physical Temple obsolete, a transition symbolized by the tearing of the Temple veil. Subsequently, the concept of the temple is radically reapplied to the individual believer and the corporate Church, which are described as "living stones" built into a spiritual house. The narrative concludes with an eschatological vision of a New Jerusalem where no temple exists, as the unmediated, universal presence of God and the Lamb constitutes the final and complete fulfillment of God's desire to dwell with humanity.
The Physical Manifestation: From Tabernacle to Temple
The biblical concept of a physical "house of God" originates in the post-Exodus period and evolves from a mobile tent to a permanent national edifice, establishing the architectural and liturgical grammar for divine-human interaction.
The Wilderness Tabernacle: A Portable Cosmos
Constructed around 1450 B.C., the Wilderness Tabernacle, or Mishkan ("dwelling place"), was Israel's first formal sanctuary. Its design, exhaustively detailed in over 50 chapters of the Pentateuch, was presented not as a human invention but as a replica of a heavenly pattern shown to Moses on Mount Sinai. This underscored its role as a microcosm of the universe, resolving humanity's exile from God's presence.
Design and Symbolism:
- Dimensions: A rectangular sanctuary approximately 45 feet long, 15 feet wide, and 15 feet high, constructed from acacia wood frames.
- Orientation: The opening faced East, aligning with the rising sun.
- Coverings: Four layers of fabric provided protection and symbolic meaning.
Layer | Material | Symbolic/Practical Significance |
Inner Lining | Fine linen with blue, purple, and scarlet yarns | Represented the beauty and royalty of God's inner presence. |
Second Layer | Goat hair | A standard, durable tent-making material for the desert. |
Third Layer | Ram skins dyed red | Added protection and suggested sacrificial overtones. |
Outer Covering | Durable leather (tachash) | Provided a weatherproof exterior for the harsh Sinai environment. |
The layout established a graduation of holiness, with materials becoming more precious—from bronze in the outer courtyard to silver and gold in the Holy Place and Most Holy Place—as one moved closer to the divine presence. The entire structure was placed at the center of the Israelite camp, which was arranged in a specific order mirroring ancient Egyptian military camps (e.g., that of Ramesses II), reinforcing Yahweh's role as divine commander.
Furnishings and Liturgical Roles: The Tabernacle was divided by a veil embroidered with cherubim into two rooms:
- The Holy Place (15 x 30 feet): Accessible only to priests for daily rituals. It contained the seven-branched golden lampstand (Menorah), symbolizing divine illumination; the table of showbread, representing Israel's twelve tribes in fellowship with God; and the altar of incense, symbolizing the people's prayers.
- The Most Holy Place (15 x 15 feet): A perfect cube housing the Ark of the Covenant, where the Shekinah glory (God's visible presence) descended. Only the High Priest could enter, and only once a year on the Day of Atonement.
Furniture Item | Location | Primary Material | Symbolic Function |
Bronze Altar | Outer Courtyard | Bronze-overlaid acacia | Site of animal sacrifices for atonement. |
Bronze Laver | Outer Courtyard | Bronze | For ritual washing of priests before service. |
Table of Showbread | Holy Place | Gold-overlaid acacia | Symbol of divine-human fellowship and provision. |
Golden Lampstand | Holy Place | Solid Gold | The sole source of light, representing divine illumination. |
Altar of Incense | Holy Place | Gold-overlaid acacia | Symbolized the prayers of the people ascending to God. |
Ark of the Covenant | Most Holy Place | Gold-overlaid acacia | Served as the throne of God and held the covenant Law. |
The Ark of the Covenant: The Mobile Divine Throne
The Ark was the most sacred object in Israel, considered the only physical manifestation of God on earth. It was a gold-overlaid acacia wood chest measuring approximately 45 by 27 by 27 inches.
- Contents: It primarily housed the stone tablets of the Ten Commandments. Tradition holds it also contained a golden jar of manna and Aaron's budding rod, tangible reminders of God's covenant, provision, and priestly authority.
- The Mercy Seat (kapporet): A solid gold lid featuring two cherubim whose outstretched wings created a space where God promised to communicate with His people. On the Day of Atonement, the High Priest would sprinkle sacrificial blood here, transforming the Ark from a symbol of judgment (the Law within) to a throne of grace.
The Ark's journey through Israel's early history highlights its theological significance and the dangers of its misuse. Its carrying poles were never to be removed, reflecting its peripatetic nature.
Chronological Event | Location | Outcome/Significance |
Sinai Construction | Mt. Sinai | Established as the center of Israel’s worship. |
Jordan Crossing | Jordan River | The river parted, allowing safe passage into Canaan. |
Siege of Jericho | Jericho | Marching with the Ark led to the city walls' collapse. |
Central Sanctuary | Shiloh | Housed in the Tabernacle for 369 years during the period of the Judges. |
Philistine Capture | Battle of Aphek | Captured by Philistines after being used as a talisman, leading to the cry "Ichabod" (The glory has departed). |
Philistine Exile | Ashdod, Gath, Ekron | Caused plagues and toppled the idol Dagon, demonstrating Yahweh's power was not localized. |
Return to Israel | Beth-shemesh | Returned on a cart; 70 men were struck dead for looking inside. |
House of Abinadab | Kiriath-jearim | Remained for an extended period (20-120 years) until David's reign. |
Final Preparation | City of David | Placed in a tent by David before the Temple construction. |
Solomon's Temple: The Institutionalization of Presence
Around 966 B.C.E., King Solomon began construction on a permanent Temple on Mount Moriah in Jerusalem. This monumental project, which took seven years, signified Israel's transition from a nomadic confederation to an established nation-state.
- Construction: The project involved a treaty with King Hiram of Tyre for cedar, cypress, and Phoenician craftsmen. The labor force consisted of tens of thousands of workers overseen by 3,300 officials. The interior was lined with cedar and overlaid with massive amounts of gold, so no stone was visible.
- Architecture: It followed the Tabernacle's tripartite plan but on a grander scale (60 cubits long, 20 wide, 30 high).
- Porch (Ulam): Featured two massive bronze pillars named Boaz and Jachin.
- Sanctuary (Heikal): Housed ten golden lampstands, a golden altar, and the table of showbread.
- Holy of Holies (Debir): A perfect 20x20x20 cubit cube, lined with gold, housing the Ark of the Covenant and two 15-foot-tall gold cherubim.
- Cosmic Symbolism: The Temple was designed to represent the universe. The Holy of Holies represented heaven, while the "Brazen Sea"—a bronze basin 15 feet in diameter holding up to 12,000 gallons of water—represented the oceanic realms.
This First Temple stood for nearly 400 years until its destruction in 586 B.C.E. by the Babylonian army under Nebuchadnezzar II. This cataclysmic event, which included the Temple's looting and burning, initiated the Babylonian Exile and forced a profound theological rethinking. The Ark of the Covenant disappeared at this time, believed to have been lost or hidden before the city's fall.
The Era of Absence and Transition: The Second Temple Period
The loss of the First Temple and the Ark of the Covenant marked a pivotal shift in Jewish theology, moving away from a reliance on physical objects toward a focus on covenantal faithfulness and scripture.
Rebuilding in an Empty Sanctuary
Following the Edict of Cyrus in 538 B.C.E., Jewish exiles returned to Jerusalem and completed the Second Temple around 516 B.C.E. Though a significant achievement, it was considered far less glorious than Solomon's. The most profound difference was theological: the Holy of Holies was an entirely empty room.
According to Jewish tradition, the Second Temple lacked five key elements of the first:
- The Ark of the Covenant
- The Heavenly Fire on the Altar
- The Shekinah (manifested presence)
- The Spirit of Prophecy (Urim and Thummim)
- The Holy Anointing Oil
This absence forced a maturation of faith, preparing the people for a time, as prophesied by Jeremiah, when worship would no longer be centered on a physical object but on a new covenant written on the heart.
Herod's Grandeur and the Final Destruction
Beginning around 20-19 B.C.E., Herod the Great undertook a massive renovation and expansion of the Second Temple, turning it into one of the ancient world's most magnificent architectural wonders. The Temple Mount was doubled in size, and the sanctuary was adorned with white stone and gold, making it "shine like a sun-lit mountain." Despite this physical splendor, it was this Temple that Jesus of Nazareth declared would be replaced by the temple of his own body.
In 70 C.E., during a Jewish revolt, the Roman army under Titus destroyed Herod's Temple. This event had transformative consequences:
- For Judaism: It ended the sacrificial system and the priesthood, shifting spiritual authority to the Pharisees and Rabbis, who prioritized the study of Torah and synagogue liturgy.
- For Christianity: It was seen as divine validation of Jesus' teachings, confirming that the "old administration" had been superseded and forcing the burgeoning church to define itself as a spiritual body independent of a physical center in Jerusalem.
The Spiritual Habitation: A New Testament Paradigm Shift
The New Testament culminates the biblical theme of God's dwelling place by radically reinterpreting the temple not as a physical building but as a person, and subsequently, a community of people.
Jesus Christ: The Incarnate Tabernacle
The Gospel of John explicitly frames the incarnation as the ultimate fulfillment of the Tabernacle, stating that the Word became flesh and "tabernacled" (skenoo) among humanity. Jesus himself identified his body as the true Temple that would be destroyed and raised in three days. The tearing of the Temple veil at the moment of his death symbolized the end of the old system; the barrier to the Most Holy Place was removed, and access to God was now direct through Christ, who is both the final sacrifice and the Great High Priest.
The Church and the Believer as the New Temple
The Apostles extended this metaphor to encompass both the community of believers and the individual Christian.
- The Individual as Temple: The Apostle Paul admonished believers that their bodies are "temples of the Holy Spirit," imbuing personal conduct with the sacred responsibility formerly associated with a holy building.
- The Corporate Temple: Paul also described the Church as "God's building," a holy temple where Jews and Gentiles are built together. The Apostle Peter developed this with the metaphor of "living stones," which redefines the components of the true spiritual house.
Metaphor | Biblical Source | Theological Meaning |
The Living Stone | 1 Peter 2:4 | Jesus Christ is the essential foundation and cornerstone of the new spiritual structure. |
Living Stones | 1 Peter 2:5 | Individual believers are made alive in Christ and fitted together into God's plan. |
Spiritual House | 1 Peter 2:5 | The collective community of the Church constitutes the true Temple where God dwells. |
Holy Priesthood | 1 Peter 2:5 | This refers to the "priesthood of all believers," who have direct access to God. |
Spiritual Sacrifices | 1 Peter 2:5 | Animal sacrifices are replaced by acts of charity, prayer, praise, and the dedication of one's life. |
This transition represents a democratization of the divine presence. The temple no longer resides in a single location but is carried into the world by believers.
The Eschatological Fulfillment: A Temple-less Eternity
The biblical narrative concludes in the Book of Revelation with a vision of the New Jerusalem. The most striking feature of this final state is an absence: "I saw no temple in the city, for its temple is the Lord God the Almighty and the Lamb" (Revelation 21:22). This vision represents the ultimate consummation of God's desire to dwell with His people. The purpose of a mediating structure like a temple is fulfilled when sin is removed, and the presence of God becomes unmediated, universal, and eternal. The entire redeemed creation becomes the "Most Holy Place."
God's Address Changed—A Lot. Here Are 5 Ways You Never Expected.
For millennia, the idea of a "house of God" has been synonymous with permanence and stone, yet the biblical record tells a story not of a fixed address, but of a divine presence perpetually on the move. When we hear the phrase, most of us picture a familiar building—a local church with a steeple, a grand cathedral, or a historic temple. This image of permanence, however, stands in stark contrast to the original concept. The original dwelling place of God was anything but static; it was a dynamic, evolving idea that embarked on a surprising journey through history.
This journey traces a theological arc that is both radical and profound, moving from a portable military tent in the desert to a grand stone edifice, then to a person, and ultimately to the very bodies of individual believers. Each stage represents a monumental shift in how humanity understood its relationship with the divine. This post explores five of the most counter-intuitive and impactful twists in the history of God's house, revealing a story far more mobile and intimate than many might imagine.
1. The First 'House of God' Was a Cosmic Blueprint and a Military HQ
The first designated dwelling for God on earth, the Tabernacle or Mishkan, was far more than a simple tent. Its design wasn't a product of human invention but was conceived as a replica of a heavenly pattern shown directly to Moses on Mount Sinai. This structure was a microcosm of the universe, a tangible piece of divine order meant to bring God's presence into the exiled world of humanity. The sheer importance of this design is emphasized by the biblical text itself, which dedicates no fewer than 50 chapters across the Pentateuch to describing its construction and function in exhaustive detail. This structure created a graduation of holiness, reinforced by the very materials used: bronze for the outer court, while the inner sanctums utilized increasingly precious silver and gold, visually marking the approach toward the divine presence.
What’s truly surprising, however, is its dual nature. While it was a cosmic model, its layout also mirrored the design of ancient Egyptian military camps, such as the one used by Ramesses II. The Mishkan was placed in the very center of the Israelite camp, surrounded by the tribes in a specific, ordered formation. This arrangement powerfully reinforced the idea of God not just as a deity to be worshipped, but as the supreme Commander of Israel's armies (ṣb'ot), directing their movements through pillars of cloud and fire like a divine general.
2. The Ark of the Covenant Was a Dangerous, Wandering Throne
At the heart of the Tabernacle was the Ark of the Covenant, often imagined simply as a sacred container for the Ten Commandments. In reality, it was understood as the throne and footstool of God on earth, and its history is one of a perilous and dynamic journey. The Ark’s true theological power lay in its dual nature. Its golden cover, the Mercy Seat, transformed the Ark from a box of judgment (containing the Law) into a throne of grace, the very site where atonement was made.
The Ark embarked on an odyssey that demonstrated its immense power. After being captured by the Philistines at the Battle of Aphek, it was not neutralized. Instead, it wreaked havoc in Philistine cities like Ashdod, Gath, and Ekron, causing plagues and toppling the idol of their god, Dagon. Its holiness was perilous; when it was returned to Israel, 70 men at Beth-shemesh were struck dead for looking inside it, and a man named Uzzah was killed instantly for merely touching it to keep it from falling. The theological lesson from its capture was stark: the Ark was no lucky charm. Its power, even in enemy territory, proved that God was not a localized deity bound to a single piece of land.
3. The Grand Second Temple Was Defined by an Empty Room
When Solomon's magnificent First Temple was destroyed, its replacement—the Second Temple—was eventually renovated by Herod the Great into an architectural wonder that shone like a "sun-lit mountain." Yet, for all its external splendor, its most sacred space, the Holy of Holies, was defined by a profound and shocking absence: it was an entirely empty room. Despite Herod’s breathtaking expansion, it was still fundamentally the same Second Temple, defined by the absence at its core since its inception centuries earlier.
According to Jewish tradition, the Second Temple was missing the key sacred articles that defined the first. Gone were the Ark of the Covenant, the visible Shekinah glory, the heavenly fire on the altar, the holy anointing oil, and the Spirit of Prophecy (including the Urim and Thummim). This conspicuous absence was not a design flaw but a theological catalyst. It compelled a shift in religious focus from the seen to the unseen, weaning the people off a reliance on sacred objects and preparing them for a more abstract, internal covenant.
As Jeremiah 3:16 prophesied, there would come a time when the Ark would no longer be talked about or missed, as God would establish a new covenant written on the hearts of the people.
4. Jesus’s Most Provocative Claim Was About Architecture
The next major shift came not from builders or kings, but from Jesus of Nazareth. In a brilliant narrative loop that harkens back to the very beginning of our story, the Gospel of John explains that the Word became flesh and "tabernacled" (skenoo) among us, deliberately linking the incarnation to the original, mobile Mishkan in the wilderness. Jesus was, from the start, presented as the ultimate dwelling place of God. His most provocative claims, therefore, were about redefining the very concept of the temple. He declared that his own body was the true Temple—the one that would be destroyed and raised again in three days.
This radical idea was powerfully symbolized at the moment of his death when the massive veil of the Jerusalem Temple—the barrier separating the Holy Place from the Most Holy Place—tore from top to bottom. Theologically, this event signaled that the barrier to God's direct presence was removed and that the physical building had been "spiritually vacated." In this new paradigm, God was no longer dwelling in a structure made by human hands but was fully manifest in a person, who was himself the ultimate sacrifice, priest, and temple.
5. The Final Temple Isn't Made of Stone—It's Made of People
The final step in this evolutionary journey was the expansion of the temple metaphor from one person to an entire community and, ultimately, to each individual believer. The New Testament writers describe Christians as "living stones" being built together into a "spiritual house." The temple of God was no longer a destination but a living, growing community where God’s presence resides. In this new temple, "spiritual sacrifices" replaced the old system, taking the form of the presentation of the physical body as a "living sacrifice," acts of charity, prayers, and the "sacrifice of praise."
This concept was then personalized in a deeply impactful way: an individual believer's body is described as a "temple of the Holy Spirit." This teaching carries a profound moral mandate, suggesting that a person's life should reflect the holiness once reserved for the innermost sanctum of the physical Temple. This represents a "democratization of the divine presence." Instead of people needing to go to a specific place to find God, the new "temple"—the community of believers—was tasked with carrying God's presence into the world.
Conclusion: A Home Built of Hearts
The story of God's dwelling place is an incredible journey from a portable tent to a grand temple, from a person to a global community. It reveals a progressive shift from the tangible and localized to the spiritual and universal—from a God contained within walls of gold and stone to a God who seeks a home within human life itself.
This transformation from a physical address to a living presence leaves us with a final, thought-provoking question. If the ultimate "sacred space" is no longer a place we visit but a life we live, how does that change the way we see ourselves and our communities today?
God's Address Changed—A Lot. Here Are 5 Ways You Never Expected.
For millennia, the idea of a "house of God" has been synonymous with permanence and stone, yet the biblical record tells a story not of a fixed address, but of a divine presence perpetually on the move. When we hear the phrase, most of us picture a familiar building—a local church with a steeple, a grand cathedral, or a historic temple. This image of permanence, however, stands in stark contrast to the original concept. The original dwelling place of God was anything but static; it was a dynamic, evolving idea that embarked on a surprising journey through history.
This journey traces a theological arc that is both radical and profound, moving from a portable military tent in the desert to a grand stone edifice, then to a person, and ultimately to the very bodies of individual believers. Each stage represents a monumental shift in how humanity understood its relationship with the divine. This post explores five of the most counter-intuitive and impactful twists in the history of God's house, revealing a story far more mobile and intimate than many might imagine.
1. The First 'House of God' Was a Cosmic Blueprint and a Military HQ
The first designated dwelling for God on earth, the Tabernacle or Mishkan, was far more than a simple tent. Its design wasn't a product of human invention but was conceived as a replica of a heavenly pattern shown directly to Moses on Mount Sinai. This structure was a microcosm of the universe, a tangible piece of divine order meant to bring God's presence into the exiled world of humanity. The sheer importance of this design is emphasized by the biblical text itself, which dedicates no fewer than 50 chapters across the Pentateuch to describing its construction and function in exhaustive detail. This structure created a graduation of holiness, reinforced by the very materials used: bronze for the outer court, while the inner sanctums utilized increasingly precious silver and gold, visually marking the approach toward the divine presence.
What’s truly surprising, however, is its dual nature. While it was a cosmic model, its layout also mirrored the design of ancient Egyptian military camps, such as the one used by Ramesses II. The Mishkan was placed in the very center of the Israelite camp, surrounded by the tribes in a specific, ordered formation. This arrangement powerfully reinforced the idea of God not just as a deity to be worshipped, but as the supreme Commander of Israel's armies (ṣb'ot), directing their movements through pillars of cloud and fire like a divine general.
2. The Ark of the Covenant Was a Dangerous, Wandering Throne
At the heart of the Tabernacle was the Ark of the Covenant, often imagined simply as a sacred container for the Ten Commandments. In reality, it was understood as the throne and footstool of God on earth, and its history is one of a perilous and dynamic journey. The Ark’s true theological power lay in its dual nature. Its golden cover, the Mercy Seat, transformed the Ark from a box of judgment (containing the Law) into a throne of grace, the very site where atonement was made.
The Ark embarked on an odyssey that demonstrated its immense power. After being captured by the Philistines at the Battle of Aphek, it was not neutralized. Instead, it wreaked havoc in Philistine cities like Ashdod, Gath, and Ekron, causing plagues and toppling the idol of their god, Dagon. Its holiness was perilous; when it was returned to Israel, 70 men at Beth-shemesh were struck dead for looking inside it, and a man named Uzzah was killed instantly for merely touching it to keep it from falling. The theological lesson from its capture was stark: the Ark was no lucky charm. Its power, even in enemy territory, proved that God was not a localized deity bound to a single piece of land.
3. The Grand Second Temple Was Defined by an Empty Room
When Solomon's magnificent First Temple was destroyed, its replacement—the Second Temple—was eventually renovated by Herod the Great into an architectural wonder that shone like a "sun-lit mountain." Yet, for all its external splendor, its most sacred space, the Holy of Holies, was defined by a profound and shocking absence: it was an entirely empty room. Despite Herod’s breathtaking expansion, it was still fundamentally the same Second Temple, defined by the absence at its core since its inception centuries earlier.
According to Jewish tradition, the Second Temple was missing the key sacred articles that defined the first. Gone were the Ark of the Covenant, the visible Shekinah glory, the heavenly fire on the altar, the holy anointing oil, and the Spirit of Prophecy (including the Urim and Thummim). This conspicuous absence was not a design flaw but a theological catalyst. It compelled a shift in religious focus from the seen to the unseen, weaning the people off a reliance on sacred objects and preparing them for a more abstract, internal covenant.
As Jeremiah 3:16 prophesied, there would come a time when the Ark would no longer be talked about or missed, as God would establish a new covenant written on the hearts of the people.
4. Jesus’s Most Provocative Claim Was About Architecture
The next major shift came not from builders or kings, but from Jesus of Nazareth. In a brilliant narrative loop that harkens back to the very beginning of our story, the Gospel of John explains that the Word became flesh and "tabernacled" (skenoo) among us, deliberately linking the incarnation to the original, mobile Mishkan in the wilderness. Jesus was, from the start, presented as the ultimate dwelling place of God. His most provocative claims, therefore, were about redefining the very concept of the temple. He declared that his own body was the true Temple—the one that would be destroyed and raised again in three days.
This radical idea was powerfully symbolized at the moment of his death when the massive veil of the Jerusalem Temple—the barrier separating the Holy Place from the Most Holy Place—tore from top to bottom. Theologically, this event signaled that the barrier to God's direct presence was removed and that the physical building had been "spiritually vacated." In this new paradigm, God was no longer dwelling in a structure made by human hands but was fully manifest in a person, who was himself the ultimate sacrifice, priest, and temple.
5. The Final Temple Isn't Made of Stone—It's Made of People
The final step in this evolutionary journey was the expansion of the temple metaphor from one person to an entire community and, ultimately, to each individual believer. The New Testament writers describe Christians as "living stones" being built together into a "spiritual house." The temple of God was no longer a destination but a living, growing community where God’s presence resides. In this new temple, "spiritual sacrifices" replaced the old system, taking the form of the presentation of the physical body as a "living sacrifice," acts of charity, prayers, and the "sacrifice of praise."
This concept was then personalized in a deeply impactful way: an individual believer's body is described as a "temple of the Holy Spirit." This teaching carries a profound moral mandate, suggesting that a person's life should reflect the holiness once reserved for the innermost sanctum of the physical Temple. This represents a "democratization of the divine presence." Instead of people needing to go to a specific place to find God, the new "temple"—the community of believers—was tasked with carrying God's presence into the world.
Conclusion: A Home Built of Hearts
The story of God's dwelling place is an incredible journey from a portable tent to a grand temple, from a person to a global community. It reveals a progressive shift from the tangible and localized to the spiritual and universal—from a God contained within walls of gold and stone to a God who seeks a home within human life itself.
This transformation from a physical address to a living presence leaves us with a final, thought-provoking question. If the ultimate "sacred space" is no longer a place we visit but a life we live, how does that change the way we see ourselves and our communities today?
.png)
Based on the detailed history of God's dwelling place, here is an outline of the progression from physical structures to spiritual habitation:
I. Introduction
The Architecture of Presence: The transition from nomadic physical sanctuaries to the internal spiritual habitation of the Divine.
II. The Wilderness Tabernacle (c. 1450 B.C.)
The Divine Blueprint: A portable "dwelling place" (Mishkan) patterned after a heavenly model revealed to Moses.
Graduations of Holiness: A three-part structure (Courtyard, Holy Place, Most Holy Place) where sanctity intensified as one approached the inner sanctum.
Furnishings and Liturgy: The roles of the Menorah, Table of Showbread, Altar of Incense, and the Bronze Altar in Israelite worship.
III. The Ark of the Covenant
Identity and Contents: An acacia wood chest containing the Tablets of the Law, a jar of manna, and Aaron’s rod.
The Mercy Seat: The solid gold cover where God communicated with His people and where atonement was made.
The Peripatetic Journey: The Ark's movement from Mt. Sinai through the Jordan River, its capture by the Philistines, and its final arrival in Jerusalem.
IV. The First Temple (Solomon’s Temple)
Institutionalization: The shift from a portable tent to a permanent stone edifice on Mount Moriah.
Architectural Grandeur: Use of Lebanese cedar, gold, and massive bronze pillars (Jachin and Boaz).
The Cataclysm of 586 B.C.E.: The destruction by the Babylonians and the theological crisis of the Exile.
V. The Second Temple
The Return from Exile: Rebuilding under Zerubbabel following the Edict of Cyrus the Great.
The Missing Ark: The theological significance of an empty Holy of Holies as a "stage of faith" transition.
Herod’s Expansion: The renovation of the sanctuary into the largest religious complex in the ancient world.
VI. The End of the Physical Cultus (70 C.E.)
The Roman Siege: The final destruction of the Temple and the permanent shift from animal sacrifice to Rabbinic study and prayer.
VII. Jesus Christ: The Incarnate Tabernacle
The New "Tent": The concept of the Logos "tabernacling" among humanity in a human body.
The Tearing of the Veil: Symbolizing the end of physical mediation and direct access to God's presence.
VIII. The Church and the Individual: The Spiritual Habitation
The Individual as Temple: The Apostle Paul’s mandate regarding the body as a temple of the Holy Spirit.
The Corporate "Living Stones": The community of believers being fitted together into a "spiritual house" and a "holy priesthood".
IX. Conclusion: The Eschatological Fulfillment
The New Jerusalem: The final vision in Revelation where no physical temple exists because God dwells directly with His people.
.png)
No comments:
Post a Comment