Eclipse

 

 A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes directly between the Earth and the Sun, casting a shadow on Earth that obscures the Sun's light either partially or completely. This alignment can only happen during a **new moon** phase, which typically occurs about twice a year during what is known as **eclipse seasons**[1][4].

## Types of Solar Eclipses

There are three primary types of solar eclipses, each defined by the alignment and distances of the Moon, Earth, and Sun:

1. **Total Solar Eclipse**: This occurs when the Moon completely covers the Sun, blocking all direct sunlight. Observers in the path of totality experience darkness for a brief period, allowing them to see the Sun's corona. This type of eclipse is rare at any specific location, occurring approximately once every 375 years on average[1][3][5].

2. **Annular Solar Eclipse**: An annular eclipse happens when the Moon is near its farthest point from Earth (apogee), making it appear smaller than the Sun. As a result, a ring of sunlight remains visible around the Moon. This type of eclipse also requires precise alignment but does not completely block the Sun's light[2][3][5].

3. **Partial Solar Eclipse**: In this scenario, only part of the Sun is obscured by the Moon. This occurs when the Sun, Moon, and Earth are not perfectly aligned, resulting in a crescent shape of sunlight remaining visible[2][4].

4. **Hybrid Solar Eclipse**: A hybrid eclipse is a combination of total and annular eclipses, where some locations experience a total eclipse while others see an annular eclipse. This phenomenon occurs due to the curvature of Earth's surface and varying distances between the Moon and Earth[1][2].

## Frequency and Viewing

Solar eclipses do not occur every new moon because the Moon's orbit is tilted about 5 degrees relative to Earth's orbit around the Sun. Consequently, most new moons pass above or below the Sun from Earth's perspective[4][5]. On average, there are about 2 to 5 solar eclipses each year globally, with at least one being total every 18 months somewhere on Earth[4][5].

The next significant solar eclipse will be a total solar eclipse on April 8, 2024, which will be visible across parts of Mexico, 14 U.S. states, and southeastern Canada[1].

Citations:
[1] https://www.space.com/15584-solar-eclipses.html
[2] https://www.rmg.co.uk/stories/topics/solar-eclipses-explained
[3] https://science.nasa.gov/eclipses/types/
[4] https://www.astronomy.com/observing/how-often-do-solar-eclipses-occur/
[5] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annular_eclipse
[6] https://science.nasa.gov/eclipses/geometry/
[7] https://www.weather.gov/fsd/suneclipse
[8] https://eclipse.aas.org/eclipse-america/how-why

British Proclamation of 1763: Protecting Indigenous Rights or Pursuing Political Strategy?

 

 

British Proclamation of 1763: Protecting Indigenous Rights or Pursuing Political Strategy?

The British government's 1763 proclamation ordering colonists in Virginia who had settled west of the Allegheny Mountains to relocate stemmed from a complex interplay of factors, including a desire to prevent further conflict with Native American tribes and to consolidate British control over colonial expansion. While the proclamation was framed as an effort to respect indigenous land rights, it also served British interests in maintaining stability and limiting colonial autonomy.

The sources highlight the historical context surrounding this proclamation. Prior to 1755, European settlement in western Virginia had been relatively limited, with only a handful of pioneers venturing into the region. The French and Indian War (1754-1763), however, significantly altered the landscape. The conflict intensified competition for land and resources, leading to increased tensions between colonists and Native Americans.

Following British victory in the war, the Crown sought to establish a more organized and controlled approach to westward expansion. The Royal Proclamation of 1763 aimed to achieve this by drawing a boundary along the Appalachian Mountains, effectively prohibiting colonial settlement west of this line. The proclamation declared these western lands as reserved for indigenous tribes, acknowledging their claim to the territory and aiming to prevent further encroachment by colonists.

The sources offer a nuanced perspective on the motivations behind this policy. While acknowledging the British government's stated intention to protect indigenous rights, they also suggest alternative interpretations. One source points out that the proclamation marked "one of a very few instances in which Great Britain even pretended to respect the rights of the aborigines". This skepticism stems from the British Empire's history of exploiting indigenous populations and prioritizing colonial expansion over Native American land claims.

The sources propose that political and economic calculations played a significant role in the proclamation's issuance. By restricting westward movement, the British government aimed to maintain a tighter grip on colonial affairs and prevent colonists from establishing independent settlements beyond the reach of royal authority. This strategy aligned with the British Empire's mercantilist policies, which sought to maximize economic benefits from its colonies while limiting their autonomy.

Moreover, the proclamation served as a means to pacify Native American tribes who had been allied with the French during the war. By reserving western lands for indigenous use, the British government hoped to prevent future uprisings and stabilize the frontier, reducing the need for costly military interventions. This pragmatic approach was consistent with the British government's efforts to consolidate its control over the newly acquired territories in North America.

The sources underscore the impact of the proclamation on colonial ambitions. The policy effectively halted large-scale settlement projects, such as the Transylvania Company's efforts to establish a colony in Kentucky. While some individuals defied the proclamation and continued to move westward, the policy significantly curtailed official settlement efforts and generated resentment among colonists eager to acquire land and expand their influence.

In conclusion, the British government's 1763 proclamation prohibiting settlement west of the Alleghenies was a multifaceted policy driven by a combination of factors. While presented as a measure to protect indigenous land rights, the proclamation also served British interests in maintaining control over colonial expansion, consolidating power, and stabilizing the frontier. The policy's impact was significant, shaping the course of westward movement and contributing to growing tensions between the Crown and its American colonies.

A Buffalo Calf and 500,000 Acres: The Story of Burden's Grant

 

A Buffalo Calf and 500,000 Acres: The Story of Burden's Grant

According to the sources, Benjamin Burden received a 500,000-acre land grant from Governor Gooch in the Valley of Virginia after presenting the Governor with a buffalo calf. This seemingly simple gesture of goodwill had a significant impact on the course of settlement in the region.

The sources paint a vivid picture of how this event unfolded. John Lewis, an early settler in the Valley of Virginia, befriended Burden during a trip to Williamsburg. Lewis invited Burden to visit his home in Bellefonte, where the Englishman spent several months immersing himself in frontier life, hunting with Lewis' sons. During one of these hunting expeditions, the group captured a buffalo calf, which Burden decided to take back to Williamsburg as a gift for Governor Gooch. The Governor, evidently delighted with this unique present, was moved to grant Burden a massive tract of land in the Valley.

This anecdote reveals the importance of personal connections and symbolic gestures in the context of colonial land grants. While the sources don't explicitly state that the buffalo calf was the sole reason for the grant, they strongly imply that this act of goodwill significantly influenced Governor Gooch's decision. The gift showcased Burden's appreciation for the region's resources and potential, perhaps signaling his intention to invest in its development.

The sources further highlight the impact of Burden's grant on the settlement of the Valley of Virginia. Upon receiving the grant, Burden immediately traveled to England and returned in 1737 with one hundred families, fulfilling the condition of the grant which required him to settle that number of families within ten years. The arrival of these families, including notable names like the McDowells, Crawfords, and Alexanders, contributed to the rapid population growth in the Valley, transforming it from a "howling wilderness" to a thriving agricultural region.

The story of Benjamin Burden's buffalo calf and subsequent land grant provides a valuable insight into the complex dynamics of land acquisition and settlement in colonial Virginia. It highlights the intersection of personal relationships, political influence, and economic opportunity that shaped the development of the Shenandoah Valley.

Letter for Bob

 

Dear Judge

I am writing to express my deep concern regarding the conviction of Robert Sims. I have had the privilege of knowing his wife, Holly for most of her life in my position as her pastor and the pastor of her family.  Over the years, the entire family has faithfully attended our  church in Pocahontas County.

I am writing a plea for leniency, not as much in support of Robert but in respect to the effect this sentencing will have on Robert's family.  

Holly is employed by the state of West Virginia as a CPS worker.  They have a sweet and precious daughter, Hailey. They live in Morgantown.  Holly has MS but declines to go on disability because she enjoys working. 

Like most families,  they have had their rough roads culminating in reconciliation and Robert's commitment to  be a good father. He attends all soccer games without fail.  He has a healthy relationship with his own family and his in laws.  They love their son-in-law very much.

Holly is now left with just one income and house payments both of which are in jeopardy.  Robert has a subsequent job and his supervisor is ready to continue his employment if he can return to work.  

Robert has pled guilty to the charges.  I do not condone what has happened.  I grieve for the imminent dissolution of this family unit.  

As a retired high school teacher,  I know well the conflicts in a classroom.  For my 25 years, I never raised a hand to a student.  I have personally experienced the disrespect of students.  I cannot imagine the disrespect that must be heaped upon a correction officers.  There, but for the grace of God go I.

I urge the court to factor in the mitigating circumstances of this crime.

I realize that Robert may have thrown his career away in a moment of passion,  All I ask is the court consider the consequences of a family losing a bread-winner, a wife with a degenerative disease, and a daughter in her most vulnerable years.

Thank you for your time and consideration.

Sincerely, 

 

Rev. Norman Alderman, Pastor

Cummings Creek Victory Chapel

304-799-7374

Town of Watoga in Pocahontas County

 

Examining the Town of Watoga in Pocahontas County

The sources highlight various aspects of Watoga, a town in Pocahontas County, West Virginia, primarily focusing on its natural setting and historical events related to the surrounding areas. Here's a summary of the key points:

• Early Settlers: Source mentions a 100-acre grant issued to Adam Arbogast in 1811, recorded in the Pendleton Grant Book. This grant suggests early settlement in the upper Greenbrier region shortly after the Revolutionary War, around 1784 or 1785. The first settlers included John Yeager, Abram Burner, John Slavin, Adam Arbogast, and William Houchin.

• Location and Natural Setting: The sources place Watoga within Pocahontas County, which is situated entirely within the Allegheny Mountains. The main trunk line of the Allegheny Mountains forms the eastern boundary of the county, with its western side characterized by highlands and valleys. The climate of Pocahontas County is described as mountainous, with cold winters and hot, relatively few hot, summers. Watoga is situated near the Greenbrier River. The sources frequently mention the Greenbrier River as a defining feature of the county's landscape and a significant transportation route.

• Watoga State Park: Source mentions an earthen dam at Watoga State Park that collapsed and drained a six-acre lake. The conservation department planned to rebuild the dam. Source provides further details about Watoga State Park, describing it as the larger of the State Parks. It was a popular destination for vacation outings due to its mountain setting, offering activities such as boating and cycling. Source notes that Watoga State Park is located south of Watoga, on the east side of Greenbrier River.

• Watoga as a Benchmark Location: The sources list various benchmarks for surveying and elevation measurements located in and around Watoga. These benchmarks indicate the town's presence on maps and its importance as a reference point. For instance, benchmarks are mentioned near the railroad tracks, suggesting that Watoga was situated along a railroad line.

Drawing Connections and Insights:

• Watoga's Role in Pocahontas County: The sources, while primarily focusing on natural features, indirectly suggest Watoga's role as a significant location within the broader context of Pocahontas County. Its mention in land grants, the presence of a state park, and its use as a benchmark location point to its prominence and historical significance.

• Shifting Landscape: The collapse of the dam at Watoga State Park highlights the dynamic nature of the landscape and the impact of human interventions on the natural environment.

• Tourism and Recreation: The development of Watoga State Park indicates a growing recognition of the area's scenic beauty and its potential for tourism and recreation.

To gain a deeper understanding of Watoga's specific history, including its founding, development, and social life, additional research beyond the provided sources is recommended. Local historical societies, town archives, and genealogical resources could provide valuable insights into the human stories that shaped the town's identity.

Stamping Creek

 

Understanding Stamping Creek in Pocahontas County

The sources offer a detailed look at Stamping Creek, a significant tributary of the Greenbrier River located in Pocahontas County, West Virginia. Here's a summary of its key characteristics:

• Location and Source: Stamping Creek originates high up on the east side of Cranberry Mountain, emerging from three small branches. The surrounding area is characterized by limestone formations, a detail relevant to the creek's unique flow pattern.
• Tributaries: Its main tributaries are Blue Lick Run and Tilda Fork, along with other smaller, unnamed branches. These tributaries contribute to Stamping Creek's overall flow and drainage area.
• Flow and Unique Feature: Stamping Creek flows southeastward, but it exhibits a distinctive feature: it occasionally sinks beneath the limestone bedrock, only to resurface near Mill Point. This phenomenon, known as a "losing stream" or "sinking creek," is characteristic of karst landscapes where soluble bedrock like limestone is prevalent.
• Historical Use: Near Mill Point, the reappearance of Stamping Creek's waters was historically harnessed to power overshot water wheels for grinding feed and flour. This highlights the creek's practical significance in the past, providing a source of energy for local industry. Additionally, the creek's flow has been used to propel a small turbine generator, indicating its continued relevance for power generation.
• Confluence with Greenbrier River: Stamping Creek ultimately flows into the Greenbrier River one-half mile north of Seebert. This confluence marks the end of its course as an independent tributary and its contribution to the Greenbrier River's larger watershed.
• Physical Dimensions: Stamping Creek has a meandering length of 6.8 miles. Its total fall is 1,710 feet, resulting in a steep average fall rate of 251.5 feet per mile. The creek drains an area of 15.8 square miles.

Key Concepts from the Sources:

• Karst Topography: The sources' description of Stamping Creek's flow sinking and resurfacing highlights the presence of karst topography in the region. Karst landscapes are characterized by sinkholes, caves, and underground drainage systems, features resulting from the dissolution of soluble bedrock like limestone.
• Historical Water Power: The use of Stamping Creek's flow for powering mills illustrates the historical significance of water power in rural communities. The creek's reliable flow provided a sustainable energy source for essential industries like milling.
• Drainage Basin Dynamics: The detailed account of Stamping Creek's length, fall, and drainage area offers insights into drainage basin dynamics. These factors influence the creek's flow rate, erosion potential, and its overall contribution to the Greenbrier River's watershed.

The sources' information on Stamping Creek provides a valuable glimpse into the interplay of geology, hydrology, and human history in shaping the landscape and resource use in Pocahontas County.

Tragedy that occurred in 1791 involving Malcolm Coleman and a small party of men on a hunting expedition for meat and bear skin

 

The sources describe a tragedy that occurred in 1791 involving Malcolm Coleman and a small party of men on a hunting expedition for meat and bear skins. The event took place on Mill Creek, a stream now in Jackson County, West Virginia, but then considered part of Greenbrier (now Pocahontas) County.

• The hunting party was composed of Malcolm Coleman and his son John, Elijah Pixley, and James Ryan.

• They ascended the Ohio in a canoe and descended the Mill Creek to a point about two miles above its mouth.

• They then camped upon that creek, abounding in game, for several days, having good success.

• One evening after pleasantly spending the day in hunting they retired at night.

• A sudden cold spell and heavy rain set in, preventing them from getting the meat they had killed to the camp.

• The rain nearly filled the ravine and the water in the creek rose rapidly.

• As a result, they were forced to spend the night upon a third bottom of the creek, considerably above their old camp, near a light falls, above which they had been successfully fishing.

• Early the following morning, Malcolm Coleman and Elijah Pixley arose very early and descended to the falls for a supply of fish.

• Coleman’s son John anxiously awaited their return.

• While standing on a projecting rock overlooking the falls he felt an unaccountable nervous apprehension on his father’s behalf, a presentiment of evil, a cold, clammy sensation passing through his shoulder, followed by another, which passed through his head, and he fell dead upon the rock.

• One of the thoughts he had before his death was that his father would be killed by Indians.

• On that day, Joshua Dewey, James Ryan, and his companion made a journey down Mill Creek to the old camp.

• Not finding Coleman and Pixley there they concluded the Indians, who made their appearance that day, had murdered them.

• Dewey made his way to the garrison at Belleville Bottom, and Ryan and his old friend hurried to the camp plundered.

• Hastening back, he was the first to carry the painful intelligence to the garrison.

• A party of men from the garrison went up to the camp in a canoe, but the Indians had taken the plunder, loaded it on horses, and made off to one of their retreats.

• Mr. Coleman on the spot where he fell, they returned deeply affected with his death.

• A safe retreat, and after interfering the remains of Mr. Coleman on the spot where he fell, they returned deeply affected with his death.

• The loss of the two men was long and sincerely mourned in the community.