Analyze this text for grammatical accuracy and compositional integrity according to the accepted standards of 21st century usage.
Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth, upon this continent,
a new nation, conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all
men are created equal.
Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing whether that nation, or any
nation so conceived, and so dedicated, can long endure. We are met on a great
battle-field of that war. We have come to dedicate a portion of that field,
as a final resting-place for those who here gave their lives, that that
nation might live. It is altogether fitting and proper that we should do this.
But, in a larger sense, we can not dedicate, we can not consecrate we can
not hallow this ground. The brave men, living and dead, who struggled here,
have consecrated it far above our poor power to add or detract. The world
will little note, nor long remember what we say here, but it can never forget
what they did here.
It is for us, the living, rather, to be dedicated here to the unfinished
work which they who fought here, have, thus far, so nobly advanced. It is
rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us that
from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which
they here gave the last full measure of devotion that we here highly resolve
that these dead shall not have died in vain that this nation, under God,
shall have a new birth of freedom and that government of the people, by
the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth.]
Research
Abraham Lincoln's Gettysburg Address: Text, Context, and Enduring Significance
I. Introduction: The Historical Significance of the Gettysburg Address
On November 19, 1863, President Abraham Lincoln delivered an address in Gettysburg, Pennsylvania.1 This speech took place during a solemn ceremony dedicated to the establishment of a cemetery for the Union soldiers who perished in the Battle of Gettysburg.1 Despite its brevity, contrasting with the principal oration of the day, Lincoln's Gettysburg Address has since ascended to the status of one of the most profound and influential speeches in American history.1 Its enduring power lies in its concise yet comprehensive articulation of the core principles upon which the United States was founded, particularly in the context of the nation's gravest internal conflict. The address serves as a powerful statement on the ideals of democracy, liberty, and equality, resonating far beyond the immediate circumstances of its delivery.
II. The Definitive Text of the Gettysburg Address: A Comparative Analysis of Reputable Sources
Determining the definitive text of the Gettysburg Address requires careful consideration of the various manuscript copies that have survived. The Library of Congress possesses two of the five known handwritten versions: the Nicolay Copy and the Hay Copy.1 The Nicolay Copy is recognized as the earliest draft, with evidence suggesting it was started in Washington D.C. and completed in Gettysburg prior to the cemetery dedication.3 The fact that the second page of this draft is written on different paper stock indicates a change in location and potentially a refinement of the speech closer to its delivery. This detail suggests that Lincoln may have continued to work on the address shortly before the event. The Hay Copy, believed to be the second draft, contains handwritten revisions by Lincoln himself.3 These drafts offer valuable insights into the evolution of Lincoln's thoughts and phrasing.
Another significant manuscript, known as the Everett Copy, is owned by the State of Illinois.4 This version is particularly noteworthy as it is the first among the surviving handwritten copies to include the phrase "under God".4 This addition marks a potential shift in emphasis or a reflection of evolving perspectives on the conflict. Furthermore, a printed version of the address from November 19th, 1863, also includes this phrase.2 The Library of Congress provides a full text of the address that incorporates "under God," indicating its widespread acceptance as part of the definitive version.2 While acknowledging the existence of multiple manuscript versions with minor variations, the text including "under God" is generally regarded as the most representative of the speech as it was likely delivered. The Library of Congress, as a primary custodian of significant historical documents, stands as a crucial resource for accessing and studying these original texts.
III. Contextualizing the Speech: The Battle of Gettysburg and the Cemetery Dedication
The Gettysburg Address was delivered in the aftermath of the Battle of Gettysburg, a pivotal and exceptionally bloody engagement fought from July 1st to 3rd, 1863.4 The immense loss of life on both sides underscored the gravity of the Civil War and the profound sacrifices made. Several months later, on November 19th, 1863, the ceremony to dedicate the Soldiers' National Cemetery took place.1 Notably, the prominent orator Edward Everett, a former statesman, was invited to deliver the main address, while President Lincoln was asked to provide only a "few appropriate remarks".5 This initial framing suggests that Lincoln's speech was not intended to be the central focus of the event. However, the brevity and profound message of Lincoln's words ultimately eclipsed the longer oration. Even Everett himself acknowledged the power of Lincoln's speech, expressing his "admiration" for its "eloquence, simplicity, and appropriateness".5 The dedication ceremony served the purpose of honoring the Union soldiers who had died at Gettysburg, their sacrifice being directly linked to the cause of preserving the nation.3 The fact that Lincoln's concise remarks resonated so deeply, overshadowing the anticipated main speech, highlights the power of carefully chosen words to capture the essence of a moment and leave a lasting impact on subsequent generations.
IV. Key Themes and Rhetorical Devices in Lincoln's Address
The Gettysburg Address commences with the iconic phrase, "Four score and seven years ago," a deliberate reference to the year 1776 and the signing of the Declaration of Independence.2 This opening immediately establishes a connection to the foundational principles upon which the nation was established. By invoking the Declaration, Lincoln frames the ongoing Civil War not merely as a conflict to preserve the Union but as a fundamental test of whether a nation conceived in liberty and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal can indeed endure. The speech emphasizes that the Civil War is a trial not only for the United States but for any nation founded on such ideals.2
A central theme of the address is the dedication of a portion of the Gettysburg battlefield as a final resting place for the soldiers who gave their lives there.2 However, Lincoln employs a powerful rhetorical device by asserting that the brave men, living and dead, who fought at Gettysburg had already consecrated the ground through their sacrifice, far exceeding any power of the living to dedicate it through ceremony or words.2 This use of antithesis underscores the immeasurable nature of the soldiers' sacrifice and the limitations of language in truly honoring their deeds.
The speech then shifts its focus to the living, calling upon them to dedicate themselves to the "great task remaining".2 This task involves ensuring that the sacrifices made at Gettysburg were not in vain and that the nation experiences a "new birth of freedom".2 This concluding message transforms the dedication ceremony into a renewed commitment to the Union cause and implicitly to the abolition of slavery, suggesting that the war should lead to a more complete realization of the nation's founding ideals. The address culminates in the powerful declaration that "government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth".2 This concise and memorable definition of democracy serves as a powerful affirmation of the Union's commitment to this form of governance and its determination to ensure its survival.
V. Variations in Manuscript Copies and Their Historical Implications
The existence of five known manuscript copies of the Gettysburg Address, each exhibiting slight variations, presents a challenge in identifying a single, definitive version.4 The Nicolay and Hay copies, housed at the Library of Congress, are generally considered to be earlier drafts.1 Studying these drafts allows for an examination of the evolution of Lincoln's thoughts and phrasing as he prepared the speech.
The Everett Copy, held by the State of Illinois, is particularly significant due to its inclusion of the phrase "under God".4 This variation has been a subject of considerable scholarly discussion. The addition or omission of this phrase in different versions raises questions about Lincoln's original intent and the evolving understanding of the speech's message over time. The Everett Copy was specifically intended to be bound together with Edward Everett's speech for the purpose of fundraising for wounded Civil War soldiers.5 This practical purpose behind the creation of this particular copy might have influenced the inclusion of the religious reference. The National Constitution Center's blog provides a comparison of six versions of the address, including the five handwritten copies and an Associated Press version, highlighting the ongoing scholarly interest in analyzing these textual variations and their potential significance.5 The presence or absence of "under God" in different versions suggests a potential evolution in Lincoln's thinking or the influence of different contexts and intended audiences.
Table 1: Comparison of Key Phrases in Early Manuscript Copies of the Gettysburg Address
This table illustrates some of the key textual variations between three of the early manuscript copies, particularly highlighting the inclusion of "under God" in the Everett Copy and the more complete phrasing of the concluding statement in that version.
VI. Conclusion: The Enduring Legacy and Interpretation of the Gettysburg Address
The Gettysburg Address stands as a monumental testament to the power of concise and purposeful rhetoric. Despite its brevity and the initial context of being secondary to another speaker's oration, it has become recognized as one of the most important and influential speeches in American history.1 The address succinctly and powerfully articulates the fundamental values upon which the United States was founded and underscores the profound significance of the Civil War as a test of these very principles. Its enduring legacy lies in its ability to transcend the immediate historical circumstances of its delivery and speak to universal themes of sacrifice, freedom, and the ideals of democratic governance. The speech continues to be a subject of study and debate, its historical context, rhetorical brilliance, and enduring relevance ensuring its place in the ongoing discourse about American identity and the meaning of democracy.
Works cited
Introduction - Gettysburg Address: Primary Documents in American History, accessed April 2, 2025, https://guides.loc.gov/gettysburg-address
Gettysburg address delivered at Gettysburg Pa. Nov. 19th, 1863 ..., accessed April 2, 2025, https://www.loc.gov/resource/rbpe.24404500/?st=text
The Gettysburg Address by Abraham Lincoln, accessed April 2, 2025, https://www.abrahamlincolnonline.org/lincoln/speeches/gettysburg.htm
Gettysburg Address | Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum - Illinois.gov, accessed April 2, 2025, https://presidentlincoln.illinois.gov/exhibits/online-exhibits/gettysburg-address-everett-copy/
Gettysburg - Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum - Illinois.gov, accessed April 2, 2025, https://presidentlincoln.illinois.gov/education/educator-resources/teaching-guides/gettysburg/
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Soldiers National Cemetery
© Abraham Lincoln OnlineThe Gettysburg Address
Gettysburg, Pennsylvania
November 19, 1863On June 1, 1865, Senator Charles Sumner referred to the most famous speech ever given by President Abraham Lincoln. In his eulogy on the slain president, he called the Gettysburg Address a "monumental act." He said Lincoln was mistaken that "the world will little note, nor long remember what we say here." Rather, the Bostonian remarked, "The world noted at once what he said, and will never cease to remember it. The battle itself was less important than the speech."
There are five known copies of the speech in Lincoln's handwriting, each with a slightly different text, and named for the people who first received them: Nicolay, Hay, Everett, Bancroft and Bliss. Two copies apparently were written before delivering the speech, one of which probably was the reading copy. The remaining ones were produced months later for soldier benefit events. Despite widely-circulated stories to the contrary, the president did not dash off a copy aboard a train to Gettysburg. Lincoln carefully prepared his major speeches in advance; his steady, even script in every manuscript is consistent with a firm writing surface, not the notoriously bumpy Civil War-era trains. Additional versions of the speech appeared in newspapers of the era, feeding modern-day confusion about the authoritative text.
Bliss Copy
Ever since Lincoln wrote it in 1864, this version has been the most often reproduced, notably on the walls of the Lincoln Memorial in Washington. It is named after Colonel Alexander Bliss, stepson of historian George Bancroft. Bancroft asked President Lincoln for a copy to use as a fundraiser for soldiers (see "Bancroft Copy" below). However, because Lincoln wrote on both sides of the paper, the speech could not be reprinted, so Lincoln made another copy at Bliss's request. It is the last known copy written by Lincoln and the only one signed and dated by him. Today it is on display at the Lincoln Room of the White House.
Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent, a new nation, conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal.
Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing whether that nation, or any nation so conceived and so dedicated, can long endure. We are met on a great battle-field of that war. We have come to dedicate a portion of that field, as a final resting place for those who here gave their lives that that nation might live. It is altogether fitting and proper that we should do this.
But, in a larger sense, we can not dedicate -- we can not consecrate -- we can not hallow -- this ground. The brave men, living and dead, who struggled here, have consecrated it, far above our poor power to add or detract. The world will little note, nor long remember what we say here, but it can never forget what they did here. It is for us the living, rather, to be dedicated here to the unfinished work which they who fought here have thus far so nobly advanced. It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us -- that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion -- that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain -- that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom -- and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth.
Abraham Lincoln
November 19, 1863
Nicolay CopyNamed for John G. Nicolay, President Lincoln's personal secretary, this is considered the "first draft" of the speech, begun in Washington on White house stationery. The second page is writen on different paper stock, indicating it was finished in Gettysburg before the cemetery dedication began. Lincoln gave this draft to Nicolay, who went to Gettysburg with Lincoln and witnessed the speech. The Library of Congress owns this manuscript.
Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth, upon this continent, a new nation, conceived in liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal.
Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing whether that nation, or any nation so conceived, and so dedicated, can long endure. We are met on a great battle field of that war. We come to dedicate a portion of it, as a final resting place for those who died here, that the nation might live. This we may, in all propriety do.
But, in a larger sense, we can not dedicate we can not consecrate we can not hallow, this ground The brave men, living and dead, who struggled here, have hallowed it, far above our poor power to add or detract. The world will little note, nor long remember what we say here; while it can never forget what they did here.
It is rather for us, the living, we here be dedicated to the great task remaining before us that, from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they here, gave the last full measure of devotion that we here highly resolve these dead shall not have died in vain; that the nation, shall have a new birth of freedom, and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth.
Hay CopyBelieved to be the second draft of the speech, President Lincoln gave this copy to John Hay, a White House assistant. Hay accompanied Lincoln to Gettysburg and briefly referred to the speech in his diary: "the President, in a fine, free way, with more grace than is his wont, said his half dozen words of consecration." The Hay copy, which includes Lincoln's handwritten changes, also is owned by the Library of Congress.
Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth, upon this continent, a new nation, conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal.
Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing whether that nation, or any nation so conceived, and so dedicated, can long endure. We are met here on a great battlefield of that war. We have come to dedicate a portion of it, as a final resting place for those who here gave their lives that that nation might live. It is altogether fitting and proper that we should do this.
But in a larger sense, we can not dedicate we can not consecrate we can not hallow this ground. The brave men, living and dead, who struggled here, have consecrated it far above our poor power to add or detract. The world will little note, nor long remember, what we say here, but can never forget what they did here.
It is for us, the living, rather to be dedicated here to the unfinished work which they have, thus far, so nobly carried on. It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain; that this nation shall have a new birth of freedom; and that this government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth.
Everett CopyEdward Everett, the chief speaker at the Gettysburg cemetery dedication, clearly admired Lincoln's remarks and wrote to him the next day saying, "I should be glad, if I could flatter myself that I came as near to the central idea of the occasion, in two hours, as you did in two minutes." In 1864 Everett asked Lincoln for a copy of the speech to benefit Union soldiers, making it the third manuscript copy. Eventually the state of Illinois acquired it, where it's preserved at the Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum.
Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth, upon this continent, a new nation, conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal.
Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing whether that nation, or any nation so conceived, and so dedicated, can long endure. We are met on a great battle-field of that war. We have come to dedicate a portion of that field, as a final resting-place for those who here gave their lives, that that nation might live. It is altogether fitting and proper that we should do this.
But, in a larger sense, we can not dedicate, we can not consecrate we can not hallow this ground. The brave men, living and dead, who struggled here, have consecrated it far above our poor power to add or detract. The world will little note, nor long remember what we say here, but it can never forget what they did here.
It is for us, the living, rather, to be dedicated here to the unfinished work which they who fought here, have, thus far, so nobly advanced. It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they here gave the last full measure of devotion that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth.
Bancroft CopyAs noted above, historian George Bancroft asked President Lincoln for a copy to use as a fundraiser for soldiers. When Lincoln sent his copy on February 29, 1864, he used both sides of the paper, rendering the manuscript useless for lithographic engraving. So Bancroft kept this copy and Lincoln had to produce an additional one (Bliss Copy). The Bancroft copy is now owned by Cornell University.
Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth, on this continent, a new nation, conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal.
Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing whether that nation, or any nation so conceived, and so dedicated, can long endure. We are met on a great battle-field of that war. We have come to dedicate a portion of that field, as a final resting-place for those who here gave their lives, that that nation might live. It is altogether fitting and proper that we should do this.
But, in a larger sense, we can not dedicate, we can not consecrate we can not hallow this ground. The brave men, living and dead, who struggled here, have consecrated it far above our poor power to add or detract. The world will little note, nor long remember what we say here, but it can never forget what they did here. It is for us the living, rather, to be dedicated here to the unfinished work which they who fought here have thus far so nobly advanced. It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they here gave the last full measure of devotion - that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom, and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth.
Source for all versions: Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln, edited by Roy P. Basler and others.
Related Links
A Teacher's Tour of the Battle of Gettysburg (Matthew Pinsker/Gilder Lehrman Institute)
Battlefield Maps (Library of Congress)
Civil War Institute (Gettysburg College)
Edward Everett's Gettysburg Speech (University of Maryland)
Gettysburg Address Exhibit (Library of Congress)
Gettysburg Address Eyewitness (National Public Radio)
Gettysburg Address News Article (New York Times)
Gettysburg Address Teacher Resource (C-SPAN)
Gettysburg Address Text
Gettysburg Civil War Photographs (Library of Congress)
Gettysburg Discussion Group (Bob & Dennis Lawrence)
Gettysburg Foundation
Gettysburg National Military Park (NPS)
How Some Few "Remarks" Became the Gettysburg Address (LAP/ALI)
David Wills's Letter of Invitation to Lincoln (Library of Congress)
Lincoln and the Gettysburg Awakening (JALA)
Lincoln and Gettysburg Timeline
Lincoln Fellowship of Pennsylvania
Lincoln's Invitation to Stay Overnight (Library of Congress)
Edward Everett's Letter to Lincoln (Library of Congress)
Photograph of Lincoln at Gettysburg (Library of Congress)
Reading of the Gettysburg Address (NPR)
Recollections of Lincoln at Gettysburg (Bob Cooke)
Response to a Serenade
Robert Todd Lincoln's "Gettysburg Story" (JALA)
Seminary Ridge Museum
Solving the Mysteries of the Gettysburg Address (LAP/ALI)
The Gettysburg Powerpoint Presentation (Peter Norvig)
Who Stole the Gettysburg Address? (JALA)
Wills HouseRelated Books
- Boritt, Gabor. The Gettysburg Gospel: The Lincoln Speech That Nobody Knows. Simon & Schuster, 2006.
- Graham, Kent. November: Lincoln's Elegy at Gettysburg. Indiana University Press, 2001.
- Hoch, Bradley R. and Boritt, Gabor S. The Lincoln Trail in Pennsylvania. Pennsylvania State University Press, 2001.
- Johnson, Martin P. Writing the Gettysburg Address. University Press of Kansas, 2013.
- Kunhardt, Philip B., Jr. A New Birth of Freedom - Lincoln at Gettysburg. Boston: Little, Brown, 1983.
- Mearns, David C., Dunlap, Lloyd A., Wilson, Douglas L., and Sellers, John R., contributors. Long Remembered: Lincoln and His Five Versions of the Gettysburg Address. Levenger Press, 2011.
- Wills, Garry. Lincoln at Gettysburg: The Words That Remade America. Touchstone Books, 1993.
- Wilson, Douglas L. Lincoln's Sword: The Presidency and the Power of Words. Alfred A. Knopf, 2006
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Prompt- Boritt, Gabor. The Gettysburg Gospel: The Lincoln Speech That Nobody Knows. Simon & Schuster, 2006.
Analysis
This text is Abraham Lincoln's Gettysburg Address, a masterpiece of rhetoric. Analyzing it by modern standards requires distinguishing between grammatical correctness and stylistic conventions that have evolved.
1. Grammatical Accuracy:
Overall: The grammar is overwhelmingly sound, even by today's standards. There are no fundamental errors in subject-verb agreement, pronoun usage, tense consistency, or basic sentence structure.
Punctuation:
Comma usage is generally correct but reflects a 19th-century tendency towards more frequent commas than often seen in minimalist 21st-century style (e.g., commas after introductory phrases like "upon this continent," or separating short clauses). However, this usage is still considered grammatically acceptable, just stylistic.
The final bracket ] appears to be an artifact from the source (like a webpage edit mode marker) and not part of the original text. It should be disregarded.
Word Choice & Usage:
"Four score": Archaic. Modern usage would be "Eighty-seven".
"brought forth": Formal and slightly archaic. Modern equivalents might be "established," "created," or "founded."
"hallow": Less common today but still understood. "Sanctify" or "make holy" might be used, but "hallow" carries specific connotations appropriate here.
"shall": Used correctly for formal pronouncements and determination. While "will" is more common in everyday 21st-century American English, "shall" is grammatically correct and adds weight here.
Sentence Structure: The sentences are often complex and feature multiple clauses. While grammatically correct, some modern writing guidelines might suggest breaking down longer sentences (like the third paragraph's main sentence starting "It is rather for us...") for easier readability in certain contexts (e.g., web content). However, for formal oratory, this complexity is acceptable and contributes to the rhetorical effect.
2. Compositional Integrity:
Structure & Flow: The address has impeccable logical structure:
Past: The nation's founding principles.
Present: The test of those principles (Civil War, the specific battle).
Present Action: The inadequacy of mere dedication ceremonies.
Future: The dedication required of the living to uphold those principles.
This progression is clear, coherent, and powerful.
Clarity & Conciseness: Despite complex sentences, the language is precise. Lincoln uses relatively simple vocabulary overall (with a few notable exceptions like "score," "conceived," "consecrate," "hallow"). It is remarkably concise for the depth of meaning conveyed.
Rhetoric: The text employs powerful rhetorical devices still effective today:
Parallelism: "government of the people, by the people, for the people."
Repetition: "nation," "conceived," "dedicated," "here."
Antithesis: "living and dead," "add or detract."
Anaphora: Repetition at the beginning of clauses (e.g., "we can not dedicate, we can not consecrate, we can not hallow").
Tone: The tone is solemn, formal, and deeply earnest, appropriate for the occasion and purpose. This level of formality is less common in everyday 21st-century communication but remains standard for significant public addresses or ceremonial texts.
Conclusion:
From a purely grammatical standpoint according to 21st-century rules, the Gettysburg Address remains highly accurate. Minor differences exist in stylistic preferences regarding punctuation frequency and certain word choices ("score," "shall"), but these are not errors.
Compositionally, its integrity is exceptional. The structure is logical, the message is clear (despite sentence complexity), and the rhetorical devices contribute powerfully to its enduring impact. While modern digital media often favors shorter sentences and less formality, the compositional techniques used by Lincoln remain models of effective, persuasive, and moving communication for formal contexts. It stands as a benchmark of concise, powerful, and well-structured prose across centuries.
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