Sermon: Accountability

 Romans 14:12 notes that "every one of us shall give account of himself to God"

The etymology of "accountability" can be traced through the following points:

• The word "account" is related to record, register, inventory, or score. It can also refer to a description, statement, narration, or report. Furthermore, "account" can signify consideration, motive, reason, or ground.
• As a verb, "account" means to esteem, regard, deem, think, hold, or consider. It also means to explain, give a reason, or assign the cause.
• "Accountability" is defined as accountableness, responsibility, liability, or obligation.
• "Accountable" means responsible, answerable, amenable, or liable.
• Therefore, "accountability" relates to the state of being responsible for providing an account or explanation.

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Accountability involves being responsible, answerable, and liable for one's actions, decisions, and obligations. It encompasses moral, legal, and social dimensions, requiring individuals and groups to provide justification for their conduct and accept the consequences of their choices.

Key aspects of accountability:

• Moral and Legal Duty: Accountability arises from obligations, whether moral, legal, or contractual. It's the binding power of promises, contracts, oaths, laws, and the sense of duty that compels certain actions or forbearance.
• Responsibility to God: Accountability extends to one's relationship with God, where individuals are responsible for their actions and face judgment.
• Accountability in Community: People are responsible and have a duty to each other. This responsibility extends to the whole church for maintaining pure doctrine and practice.
• Limits of Accountability: Each person bears their own burden of work and character, but should help others with burdens that can be shared.
• Consequences of choices The choices individuals make have consequences that they alone will bear.
• Guilt: Guilt signifies the desert of punishment or the obligation to satisfy God's justice for violating the law.
• Corporate Responsibility: There is a concept of human responsibility that goes beyond individual sins. Every sin can affect others, with guilt and corruption spreading.
• Divine Sovereignty and Human Freedom: Accountability is also connected to the relationship between divine sovereignty and human freedom.

The role of law and conscience in accountability:

• Law and Accountability: The law, especially the Old Testament revelation, exposes human sinfulness and need, preparing people for Christ.
• Conscience as a Guide: A tender conscience is considered a stronger obligation than any external constraint. A trust is the obligation of one's conscience to fulfill the intention of another.

Different views of accountability and imputation:

• Imputation of Sin: Various theological views exist regarding the imputation of sin, particularly concerning Adam's sin and its impact on humanity. Some theories suggest a legal or federal responsibility, while others emphasize a real union between Adam and his descendants.
• Realistic Basis for Imputation: For Adam's sin to be imputed, there must be a realistic basis, such as a real union between Adam and his descendants.
• Critiques of Federal Theology: Some theologians view the federal theology as creating fictitious guilt and reversing the proper order of cause and effect.

Overall, accountability is a multifaceted concept encompassing moral, legal, social, and theological dimensions. It involves being answerable for one's actions and decisions, understanding the consequences of those choices, and recognizing one's obligations to God, to others, and to the established laws and principles of society.

List 10 verses from the Bible about accountability KJV

Ten verses from the King James Version of the Bible that address accountability:

• Matthew 12:37 states, "For by thy words thou shalt be justified, and by thy words thou shalt be condemned".
• Romans 2:6 says that God "will render to every man according to his deeds".
• Romans 14:12 notes that "every one of us shall give account of himself to God".
• 1 Corinthians 3:13 says, "Every man’s work shall be made manifest...the fire shall try every man’s work of what sort it is". This speaks to a test of one's actions.
• Galatians 6:5 states, "For every man shall bear his own burden".
• Hebrews 9:27 states, "as it is appointed unto men once to die, but after this the judgment".
• Hebrews 10:30 indicates that "The Lord shall judge his people".
• 1 Peter 4:5 mentions rendering account to Him that is ready to judge the quick and the dead.
• Revelation 20:12 references being judged out of those things which were written in the books, according to their works.
• Numbers 32:23 states, "be sure your sin will find you out".

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The passage "Every man’s work shall be made manifest...the fire shall try every man’s work of what sort it is" suggests that one's actions and efforts will be revealed and tested. This concept aligns with several themes present in the sources regarding accountability, trials, and the transformative power of divine judgment.

Aspects of this concept:

• Divine Scrutiny: The passage indicates a thorough examination of one's work. This resonates with the idea that God knows and sees all works, both good and bad, and is qualified to dispense rewards or administer punishments according to truth and justice.
• Testing and Purification: Fire is used as a metaphor for testing the quality of one's work. This aligns with the concept of trials and afflictions serving to bring out the deeper capacities of the soul. Experiences that challenge and test an individual can develop consecration, zeal, and devotion. Fire is also considered a purifying influence.
• Manifestation and Judgment: The idea that every man's work will be made manifest suggests a day of reckoning when actions are revealed. The fire will expose the true nature of each person's work.
• Accountability and Consequences: This concept speaks to the idea of accountability, where individuals are answerable for their actions and decisions. Those whose work withstands the test will receive a reward, while those whose work is burned will suffer loss. This aligns with the broader theme of accountability to God and the consequences of one's choices.
• Transformative Power: Fire can transform materials into its own essence. Sin turns everything over which it gains control into a curse. God uses trials to accomplish his designs for his people.
• Error and Sin Intolerance: The state of mind appropriate to a Christian is that error and sin should not be tolerated.

Illustrative examples:

• The Cyclopedia of Illustrations uses the verse, "The fire shall try every man’s work" under the heading "Fire, Cost of".
• The writings of the Apostle Paul demonstrate passionate earnestness and concentration. Paul's imprisonment led to the conversion of his guards by sharing the story of Christ, using his circumstances for one purpose.
• Thomas Carlyle's history of the French Revolution was lost when a servant used the manuscript to start a fire, representing the destruction of labor.
• The King James Bible uses fire as a symbol of God's anger that "shall burn unto the lowest hell, and shall consume the earth".
• Illustrations of God using fire include the sacrifices of Moses, Manoah, Solomon and Elijah, which were consumed by fire from heaven.
• The book of Revelation describes a time when men were scorched with fire and heat, yet they blasphemed God and did not repent.
• Martin Luther describes the "sweat" of teachers in the church, noting the church is infested with devils, heresies, scandals, sins, and violence.
• Augustine and other writers maintained the torments of hell are real and include a worm that never dies and a fire that never goes out.
• Trials and tribulations are figures of fire and water.
• Isaiah notes that God's fire is in Zion and His furnace in Jerusalem.
• Some people are consumed by avarice, lust, and intemperance.
• Those who make graven images will be ashamed and without profit. The smith "worketh in the coals, and fashioneth it with hammers, and worketh it with the strength of his arms".

These concepts underscore the importance of living a life that can withstand divine scrutiny, being accountable for one's actions, and understanding that trials can serve as opportunities for purification and growth.

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A life that can withstand divine scrutiny is characterized by several key aspects:

• Purity and Uprightness A life lived free from the stain of sin is a high calling. God's standard of piety is much higher than that of humans, and what some consider holy worship may be seen by God as hollow mockery. Therefore, striving for purity and uprightness is essential. Uprightness should preserve us.
• Godliness and Active Reverence Godliness is the great aim that every Christian should set before him as the supreme purpose of life, with active godliness meaning religion embodied in deeds, emotions, sentiments, and creeds put into action.
• Alignment with God's Will A life pleasing to Jesus Christ involves a practical life or course of conduct that is worthy of Him. Knowing God's will is crucial, not just in speculative matters but in understanding how to live according to His desires.
• Love and Obedience Loving God with all your heart, soul, strength, and mind, and loving your neighbor as yourself are essential. Perfect obedience requires love toward God and conformity of the whole inward and outward nature to the holiness of God.
• Unified Life Reducing faculties to order through the fear and love of God brings peace, purity, and power. A good life is a unified life, avoiding a dual or double existence.
• Continuous surrender This involves the continuous surrender of divine powers and the voluntary acceptance of temptation, suffering, and death, as demonstrated by the God-man.
• Trust and Hope in the Lord Blessed is the man that trusts in the Lord and whose hope the Lord is. They shall be as a tree planted by the waters, not fearing drought and continually yielding fruit.
• Rejection of Worldliness A life worthy of our calling involves turning away from earthly things and contempt for material wealth.
• Self-control and Sobriety There is no noble or Christian life possible without suppression and mortification of the desires of the flesh and spirit.
• A life in faith The Christian life has its surface amidst the shifting mutabilities of earth, but its root in the silent eternities of the centre of all things, which is Christ in God.
• Living Sacrifice Presenting your bodies as a living sacrifice, holy and acceptable to God, is a reasonable service. This involves transformation through the renewing of your mind to prove what is good, acceptable, and the perfect will of God.
• Righteousness, Peace, and Joy The kingdom of God is not about eating and drinking, but about righteousness, peace, and joy in the Holy Spirit.
• Openness and honesty God sees all, and all things are naked and opened to him.

A character is needed that will stand the test of time and grow more beautiful when exposed for the world’s use. Therefore, one should look after the "back yard" of their own life, ensuring that the out-of-sight parts of character and conduct can bear careful inspection.

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Theological accountability involves the idea of being answerable to God for one's actions, beliefs, and responsibilities. Several sources shed light on different facets of this concept:

• General Responsibility: Accountability, in a theological sense, extends to both Jews and Greeks, emphasizing that all are responsible from the perspective of law. Even those without a specifically revealed code are accountable because they possess a moral consciousness.
• Guilt and Judgment: The law, especially the Old Testament, serves to expose human guilt and need, preparing individuals to seek refuge in God from their failings. Those who do not live up to their awareness of duty are considered guilty.
• Justification and Atonement: The concept of measuring the altar relates to justification and atonement, which is the means of a sinner's acceptance by God. The Papacy had altered the doctrine of justification by substituting good works and the merits of saints for the great sacrifice of Jesus, thus necessitating a return to the true doctrine of sacrifice for sin.
• Divine Justice: God's justice ensures punishment for those who disobey His commands. Divine justice is both legislative (laying down righteous laws) and distributive (dealing with creatures according to those laws).
• Repentance and Reconciliation: Watchmen in the city of God press the necessity of studying truth and earnestly invite repentance and reconciliation with God. Even when shame and remorse are involved, making a full statement to God brings mental relief.
• Faith as a Response: Faith is instrumental in receiving atonement and accepting God's mercy. Justification by faith was implicitly held by pious souls even during times of perceived spiritual darkness.
• Church's Role: The church has a responsibility to maintain pure doctrine and practice. This includes contending for the faith and maintaining sound teaching. Fellowship among churches can be broken by departures from scriptural faith and practice.
• God's Sovereignty and Human Responsibility: Balancing divine sovereignty with human freedom is essential. God's design involves a continuous effort to restore moral union with humanity lost through the fall.
• Ethical Considerations: Theories of atonement often explore the relationship between divine holiness and human conscience, suggesting that God's nature demands a response to sin.
• Sacrificial Atonement: Christ's sacrifice satisfies divine holiness, removing obstacles to pardon and restoration. The ultimate aim is that God "might himself be just".
• Assurance of Salvation: Assurance is the certainty an individual has of their own salvation.
• Theological Methods: Systematic theology seeks to build an organic and consistent understanding of God and the relations between God and the universe, using both nature and scripture as sources.

In essence, theological accountability encompasses the comprehensive responsibility of individuals and communities to adhere to God's will, accept His provision for atonement, and live in accordance with divine principles.

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The Ethical Theory of Atonement posits that the necessity for atonement is rooted in God's holiness, reflected finitely in human conscience, which demands that sin be punished.

Key aspects and implications of this theory include:

• Holiness and Justice: The theory emphasizes that God's fundamental attribute is holiness, which is self-affirming righteousness, not merely self-communicating love. This holiness conditions God's love, ensuring happiness aligns with righteousness.
• Ethical Demand: There exists an ethical principle within the divine nature that necessitates the punishment of sin, regardless of its consequences. Just as humans, made in God's image, grow in purity by detecting and hating impurity, infinite purity acts as a consuming fire against iniquity.
• Satisfaction of Divine Nature: The atonement serves as a satisfaction of the ethical demand of the divine nature through the substitution of Christ's penal sufferings for the punishment deserved by the guilty. This substitution is not merely a legal procedure but an act of grace. Grace does not violate the law but fulfills it, with the source of law voluntarily bearing the penalty in human nature.
• Relation to Humanity: Christ is in such a relation to humanity that He is obligated to pay what God's holiness demands.
• Securing Divine Government and Human Needs: The atonement secures the interests of the divine government as a subordinate result of satisfying God's nature. It also addresses human needs by providing an objective satisfaction for the ethical demand of punishment for sin and manifesting divine love and mercy to inspire repentance.
• Scriptural Basis: The Ethical Theory underscores that Christ's sufferings are propitiatory and penal, and that the human conscience needs to be propitiated by Christ's sacrifice to feel the moral influence of His sufferings. The atonement is primarily an offering to God.
• Unique Fact: The atonement is a unique event illustrated only partially by debt and penalty. Terms like "purchase" and "ransom" in Scripture signify that God's justice punishes sin as deserved and that God does not change what is deserved.
• Philosophical Soundness: The Ethical Theory is grounded in correct philosophical principles concerning will, law, sin, penalty, and righteousness. It views law as a transcript of God's holiness, sin as permanent evil states, and penalty as a vindication of justice.
• Comprehensive: It incorporates valuable elements from other atonement theories, such as the importance of Christ's example (Socinian theory), the moral influence of His suffering (Bushnellian theory), and the securing of government (Grotian theory).
• Ethical Demand of Human Nature: This view satisfies the ethical demand of human nature, pacifies the convicted conscience, and assures sinners of instant salvation in Christ, enabling a new life of holiness.
• Addresses Key Problems: The Ethical Theory addresses the problem of how a just God can allow the innocent to suffer for the guilty by emphasizing Christ's identification with humanity.
• Holiness and Love of God: The atonement has its basis in the holiness of God, which condemns sin, and in the love of God, which provides a way of salvation through the suffering of His Son.
• Answers Ethical Demands: The atonement meets the demands of holiness, presents the unique explanation of sacrificial rites, gives proper place to the death of Christ, and is the best explanation of Christ’s sufferings.

The Ethical Theory explains how the innocent can suffer for the guilty and is grounded in the holiness and love of God. It combines valuable elements of other theories and satisfies the ethical demands of human nature, as it rests upon correct philosophical principles regarding the nature of will, law, sin, penalty, and righteousness.

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The understanding of atonement is enabled by the philosophical principle of Ethical Monism. Ethical Monism posits that Christ, by joining with the sinner, shares in the sinner's punishment, as humanity is bound to Christ like a finger to a body.

Key points related to Ethical Monism and the atonement:

• Humanity's Connection to Christ: Human nature is part of the "all things" that "consist" or hold together in Christ (Col 1:17).
• Sin's Impact on Christ: Sin is a self-perversion of a part of Christ's own body and the whole is injured by the self-inflicted injury of the part, so "it must needs be that Christ should suffer" (Acts 17:3).
• Reaction to Self-Perversion: If the Logos is the Mediator of divine immanence in creation, especially in man, and humans are differentiations of the effluent divine energy, then the self-perversion of these human differentiations reacts on the constitutive principle.

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The attribute of God that demands atonement is holiness. The following points explain how the sources support this claim:

• Holiness is not merely self-communicating love but self-affirming righteousness. It is the fundamental attribute of God that limits and conditions love. Love can only will happiness as it results from righteousness and conformity to God.
• The universe, with humanity as a part of it, was constituted to express God's holiness. This is achieved by connecting happiness with righteousness and unhappiness with sin.
• Violated holiness demands satisfaction. The atonement is described as a propitiation that satisfies these demands. Christ's death is required by God's justice or holiness for sinners to be saved.
• The primary effect of Christ's death is upon God, with His justice or holiness being the attribute that demands atonement. The satisfaction of God's holiness is a necessary condition for justifying believers.
• The necessity of atonement is grounded in God's immanent holiness, the fundamental attribute of God. It is a necessity in the nature of God.
• God's holiness must visit sin with condemnation.
• The ethical theory of atonement states the necessity of atonement is grounded in the holiness of God, of which conscience in man is a finite reflection. There is an ethical principle in the divine nature, which demands that sin shall be punished.

While God is love, it is not God's love that demands atonement, but his holiness. God's love provides the means for atonement, but it is God's holiness that necessitates it.

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Human guilt is central to the understanding of Christ's sacrifice and the doctrine of atonement. Here's how the sources explain the relationship:

• Bearing Our Sins: The scripture is clear that Christ suffered and died not for Himself, but for humanity's sins, to reconcile people to God. Christ took sins off humanity and laid them on himself, and He was wounded for transgressions and bruised for iniquities.
• Objective Result of Sin: Guilt is defined as the desert of punishment or the obligation to render satisfaction to God's justice for violating the law. It is an objective result of sin, distinct from subjective pollution or depravity. Every sin is an offense against God, resulting in God's personal wrath, which must be expiated by punishment or atonement.
• Guilt and Depravity: Human nature may have guilt without depravity, as in Christ, or depravity without guilt, as in the Christian. Christ took the guilt of Adam's sin, which belongs to every member of the race, without the depravity.
• Sacrificial Work: Christ obeyed and suffered to satisfy the divine holiness and remove the obstacle to pardon and restoration of the guilty. Christ's doing and suffering is not external to humanity, He is the bearer of humanity.
• Ransom: Christ's death is represented as the price of deliverance from sin and death.
• Objective vs. Subjective: Sin involves objective guilt as well as subjective defilement. The atonement was a bearing of the punishment of sin for men, which was necessary for God to show favor to the guilty. The sacrifice is offered to God to satisfy divine holiness and remove an obstacle to showing favor to the guilty.
• Union with Humanity: Christ's union with humanity made Him the bearer of its guilt and justly responsible for its sin. The ultimate aim of the atonement is that God might Himself be just.
• Race Responsibility: Christ, as the Logos and immanent God, is the Life of humanity, laden with responsibility for human sin, yet personally without sin. Christ's obedience and suffering were the visible reflection of this race-responsibility and race-guilt.
• Inherent Guilt: Christ can justly bear penalty because He inherits guilt, not personal guilt, but the guilt of the common transgression of the race in Adam.
• Prior Union with Humanity: Christ's incarnation is an expression of a prior union with the race that began when He created the race. As the life of humanity, He is involved in responsibility for all human sin.
• Taking on Human Nature: Christ's humanity was derived from Adam through Mary, giving Him the same race-responsibility as all humans. He took to Himself the consequences of sin, abolishing sin without abolishing the obligation to suffer for it.
• Imparted Guilt: By virtue of Christ's union with humanity, guilt was not only imputed but also imparted to Him. He was made sin by being made one with sinners and took humanity's guilt by taking its nature.
• Bearing Penalty: Christ's whole life of suffering was propitiatory, and penalty rested upon Him from the beginning as a consequence of taking human nature. Christ inherited penalty because He inherited guilt.
• Propitiation and Atonement: Sacrifice was understood to be a propitiation-not that the blood of bulls and goats had power to cleanse the conscience, but rather because in this appointed mode of worship the offerer acknowledged his guilt as deserving death and appealed to the Lord's mercy, and above all because in these sacrifices as types there was a purposed foreshadowing of the great effectual sacrifice to be made by the incarnate Son of God for the sins of mankind.

In summary, human guilt is the reason for Christ's sacrifice. He bore the guilt of humanity, making atonement possible through His suffering and death. This act satisfies God's holiness and provides a way for humanity to be reconciled with God.

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Propitiation is a key concept related to atonement and involves appeasing God's wrath or averting divine displeasure. Here's an overview of propitiation based on the sources:

• Definition: Propitiation means to appease, atone, or turn away the wrath of an offended person. In theology, it refers to turning away God's wrath, with Christ as the one making the propitiation and His blood as the propitiating offering or sacrifice.

• Biblical References: Several passages in the New Testament explicitly mention propitiation.

  • "He is the propitiation for our sins". (1 John 2:2)
  • God sent His Son to be the propitiation for our sins. (1 John 4:10)
  • God set forth Christ as a propitiation through faith in His blood. (Romans 3:25)

• Greek Terms: The Greek words ἱλασμὸς and ἱλαστήριον are used in the context of propitiation. These words come from the verb ἱλάσκω, which Greek writers often used to describe how someone turns away the wrath of a deity.

• Old Testament Connection: In the Greek translation of the Old Testament (the Septuagint), ἱλάσκεσθαι and ἐξιλάσασθαι correspond to the Hebrew word כפר (kaphar), which means to appease, pacify, reconcile, or make at one again with an offender. This highlights that sacrifices in the Old Testament were propitiations, accepted by God to atone for those who brought them.

• Mercy Seat: The word ἱλαστήριον is also used to refer to the mercy seat or covering of the ark. The mercy seat was where the high priest sprinkled blood on the Day of Atonement to make atonement for himself and the congregation. Jesus Christ can be seen as a mercy seat, as it is through Him that God shows Himself propitious to mankind.

• Sacrifice of Christ: Jesus Christ was set forth as a propitiatory sacrifice through faith in his blood, to demonstrate God's righteousness. The sacrifices of the Old Testament foreshadowed the great effectual sacrifice made by the incarnate Son of God for the sins of mankind.

• The Great Day of Expiation: On the great day of expiation, the high priest would lay his hands upon the head of a goat, confess the sins of the people, and send the goat away into a desert place.

• Averting God's Wrath: As Alford says, Christ, as our propitiation (sin-offering), reconciled God and us by his voluntary death as a sacrifice, thus averting God's wrath from us.

• Modern Interpretations: Some modern theologians, like Lyman Abbott, argue that the New Testament never says God is propitiated or that Jesus Christ propitiates God. Instead, they suggest God is self-propitiated, appeasing His own wrath through His love. However, this view contradicts Paul and John, for whom propitiation is essential to Christian doctrine.

• Relation to Atonement: Propitiation is closely linked to atonement. Atonement signifies the satisfaction of Divine justice. Propitiation, as conciliation, expiation, and satisfaction, affects atonement. The blood of Christ has propitiatory virtue, so through faith in Him, men may come.

In summary, propitiation is the act of appeasing God's wrath through the sacrifice of Jesus Christ. This concept is rooted in both the Old and New Testaments and is essential for understanding how atonement and reconciliation with God are made possible.

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Background 

The Papacy significantly altered the doctrine of justification, leading to a departure from earlier understandings. These changes primarily revolve around introducing subjective elements and the role of the Church in mediating grace.

Here’s a breakdown of how the Papacy changed the doctrine of justification:

• Justification as a Process: Augustine viewed justification as a continuous process, differing from Paul's understanding. This concept influenced Roman Catholic theology, mixing man's subjective condition with God's grace as a ground for justification.
• Emphasis on Works and Love: The Roman Catholic doctrine, as reflected in the Council of Trent, asserts that justification isn't solely based on faith in Christ's atoning work. Instead, it includes new love and good works wrought by Christ's Spirit within the individual. This introduces a subjective element, deviating from the scripture doctrine of justification.
• Sacramental Efficacy: The Papacy introduced the notion that sacraments are efficacious by virtue of their own operation, irrespective of the recipient's merit. The sacrament of the altar communicates grace, even to those receiving it by substitution, provided there's no flagrant immorality.
• Role of the Church: The Catholic Church emphasized the necessity of visible unity and viewed the church as the sole channel of divine grace. Salvation was said to be conveyed through forms invented by priests, sidelining the importance of the Word.
• Penance and Indulgences: The Papacy promoted practices such as penance, counting beads, and works of supererogation as effective means to obtain forgiveness, overshadowing faith in the Redeemer. The doctrine of purgatory led to indulgences, where people paid money to the clergy, supposedly to release souls from purgatory.
• Rejection of "Fiducia": The Council of Trent refuted the "inanis hæreticorum fiducia" (the vain confidence of heretics), which equated justifying faith with trust in divine mercy that pardons sins through Christ.
• Shift from Atonement: The direction to "measure the altar" during the Reformation symbolized the need to address the prevailing opinions on atonement and justification. The Papacy had transformed the Lord’s Supper into a real sacrifice, altering the role of ministers to priests and changing the doctrine of justification from faith to good works.
• Impact on Believers: Mixing subjective conditions with God's grace as a basis for justification led to uncertainty of acceptance with God.

 Penance and Indulgences: The Papacy promoted practices such as penance, counting beads, and works of supererogation as effective means to obtain forgiveness, overshadowing faith in the Redeemer. The doctrine of purgatory led to indulgences, where people paid money to the clergy, supposedly to release souls from purgatory.

• Usurping God's Prerogative: The core issue with papal indulgences was seen as an arrogant and impious usurpation of a power belonging to God alone. Critics argued that popes and priests cannot pardon sins, as that power belongs solely to God.

These changes effectively shifted the focus from a faith-based, Christ-centered justification to one that incorporated human effort, the mediation of the Church, and sacramental rituals.

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Critics argued that popes and priests cannot pardon sins, as that power belongs solely to God.

 

After the Council of Nice (A.D. 325), bishops held significant powers and responsibilities within the church. Here's a summary of the powers bishops possessed, according to the sources:

• Governance and Administration: Bishops had the power and authority to govern and administer the laws of the Church within their diocese, derived from the apostolic commission.
• Synods and Councils: Bishops had the power to convene the clergy of their diocese in synods or councils to address matters related to the order and government of the churches under their jurisdiction. These assemblies were a long-standing practice, nearly as old as the establishment of Christianity itself.
• Ordination: Bishops had the power to ordain others to the ministry, a power originally vested in the apostles. The imposition of the bishop’s hand was required in the ordination of a deacon.
• Regulation of Elections: Primates or metropolitans were responsible for regulating the elections of all their provincial bishops and either ordaining or authorizing their ordination. No election or ordination of bishops was valid without their approval.
• Presiding Over Provincial Bishops: Metropolitans were to preside over the provincial bishops, interposing their authority to resolve any controversies among them and hearing accusations against bishops. However, there was an appeal process from the metropolitan to a provincial synod.
• Calling Provincial Synods: Primates had the authority to call provincial synods, with their circular letters serving as legal summons that bishops could not disobey without facing canonical censure.
• Publishing Laws and Canons: Primates were responsible for publishing and disseminating imperial laws and canons made by emperors or councils for the benefit of the Church. This included the right to visit and investigate any neglects, abuses, or disorders committed by any bishop within the province.
• Letters of Commendation: Bishops traveling to foreign countries on extraordinary occasions were expected to consult the primate and obtain letters of commendation.
• Care of Vacant Sees: Metropolitans were responsible for overseeing vacant sees within their province, managing church affairs, securing the bishopric's revenues, and ensuring a swift election of a new bishop.
• Determining the Date of Easter: Metropolitans reviewed the calculation of the date of Easter annually and communicated it to their suffragans.
• Privileges and Immunities: Bishops, when traveling for necessary occasions, were to be hosted by their fellow clergy using Church revenues. They were also given the honorary privilege of performing divine offices and consecrating the Eucharist in other churches.
• Spiritual Authority: Bishops, or metropolitans, of important cities held high positions as special heads of the church, and were termed Exarchs and later Patriarchs. The general council of Nice (A.D. 325) recognized the superior authority already possessed by Alexandria, Rome, and Antioch.

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The Council of Constance (1414-1418) is infamous primarily due to its cruel and treacherous conduct toward John Huss and Jerome of Prague, who are regarded as early Protestant martyrs.

• Condemnation of John Huss: Despite a safe-conduct guarantee from Emperor Sigismund ensuring his safe return to Bohemia, the council condemned Huss for heresy and turned him over to secular authorities. Huss was burned at the stake in July 1415. Impartial judges have long condemned this act as a deep and indelible disgrace to the Roman Church.
• Condemnation of Jerome of Prague: Jerome of Prague was also condemned and executed shortly after Huss.
• Violation of Safe-Conduct: The violation of the safe-conduct offered to Huss by Emperor Sigismund was seen as an act of treachery. Roman writers have attempted to defend this breach of faith with inconsistent and self-contradictory arguments.
• Aftermath: The executions of Huss and Jerome ignited civil war in Bohemia.
• Condemnation of John Wycliffe: The council condemned the writings of John Wycliffe and ordered his bones to be dug up and burned. After lying in his grave for forty years, Wycliffe's remains were reduced to ashes and thrown into the brook Swift.

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The Council of Trent (1545-1563) is not universally recognized as a general or ecumenical council. Several factors contribute to this view:

• Limited Representation The council suffered from a lack of broad representation.

  • Few Bishops: In its initial sessions, particularly under Paul III, the number of bishops present was notably small, sometimes less than sixty. In one session, only thirty-five bishops were present.
  • Overrepresentation of Italians: Italians comprised the majority of attendees, with many being bishops of small sees or titular bishops dependent on papal pensions.
  • Underrepresentation of Other Nationalities: At times, the Church of France had as few as two bishops representing it during critical discussions.
  • Absent Churches: The Greek and English Churches were not represented.

• Papal Influence The proceedings were heavily influenced and controlled by the papacy.

  • Legates' Authority: Papal legates presided, set the agenda, and appointed the secretaries and officers, which curtailed independent deliberation.
  • Limited Debate: Discussions were mainly confined to previous congregations, with sessions involving only acceptance or rejection of proposed conclusions.
  • Influence on Decisions: The pope's involvement in secular alliances and military actions during the council compromised its neutrality.
  • Secular Pressure: Ambassadors from secular princes voiced concerns about the constraints placed on the council's freedom.

• Disunity and Conflict A lack of unity in purpose and opinion among the council members further undermined its legitimacy.

  • Conflicting Agendas: Representatives of various secular princes sought Church reforms, while papal partisans aimed primarily to suppress Protestantism.
  • Internal Disputes: Disagreements arose on key doctrinal points such as justification by faith, the nature of transubstantiation, and the authority of bishops versus the monastic orders.

• Procedural Issues Irregularities in the council's procedures also raised questions about its validity.

  • Voting Rights: Only bishops were typically allowed to vote, with exceptions made inconsistently for certain abbots and generals of orders.
  • Rejection of Proxies: Proxies were generally refused, except when authorized solely by the pope.

• Contradictory Statements The Council of Trent's statements were sometimes seen as imperfect and contradictory.

• Delayed Condemnation: Despite the claims of the council to represent the universal church, the anathemas it pronounced extended even to doctors esteemed in the Roman communion itself.

These factors have led many, particularly outside the Roman Catholic tradition, to view the Council of Trent as something less than a truly general or ecumenical council.

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The sources address the intertwined concepts of faith, sin, and redemption from various theological perspectives.

Faith:

• Faith as Trust and Assent: True faith involves assured trust and firm assent of the heart, through which Christ is apprehended. Christ is not merely the object of faith but is present in faith itself. It's like a ring holding a jewel; faith grasps Christ as a present possession.
• Faith includes Union with Christ: Faith encompasses the entire act of uniting with Christ as Savior, actively bringing the soul to receive Him.
• Faith Working through Love: Faith is not a barren assent to dogma but a living trust that produces fruits in life. In Jesus Christ, what matters is faith working through love.
• Faith and Repentance: Repentance toward God is as real a condition of salvation as is faith in Jesus Christ.
• Faith is More Than Intellectual Belief: Saving faith is not simply implicit assent to church doctrines or merely intellectual belief based on evidence.
• Faith and Works: James emphasizes works as proof of new life, which aligns with the Gospel message. Paul also believed faith without works is dead and demands keeping the commandments for true Christianity.
• Justifying Faith: Justifying faith involves trust in divine mercy that pardons sins for Christ's sake.

Sin:

• Origin of Evil: Early church fathers believed evil ultimately stems from man, and God's grace proves His compassion.
• Sin and the Divine Nature: The introduction of sin has allowed for a fuller display of the infinite perfections of the divine nature.
• Original Sin: Augustine maintained original sin is derived from our first parents and attempted to ascertain what the original sin conveyed by Adam to his posterity consisted of.
• Sin as a State: Sin can be understood as an underlying and permanent state of the soul.
• Consequences of Sin: As a result of sin, human nature was totally corrupted and deprived of all inclination and ability to do good.
• Conviction of Sin: A real change of heart is preceded by discovering one's sinful condition. The Spirit of judgment goes to the root of the matter and discovers sin as sin.
• The Bible's Teaching on Sin: The Bible teaches the nature, origin, and consequences of sin as committed against the holiness of God, which nature cannot.

Redemption:

• Redemption Through Christ: Mankind's redemption from sin was to be effected through a Mediator who unites human and divine natures to reconcile God and man.
• Grace and Redemption: Augustinianism emphasizes that redemption and sanctification are the work of God, with grace giving new life and the power to do good.
• The Efficacy of Christ's Sacrifice: Forgiveness includes remission of guilt and punishment borne by Christ and the transfusion of His Spirit into us.
• Regeneration and Sanctification: Regeneration is the birth of a perfect child that is to grow, and the growth is sanctification. Sanctification is the strengthening and development of the holy affection that begins in regeneration.
• Salvation by Faith: The subject of the epistle to the Romans includes not only justification by faith but sanctification by faith.
• The Holy Spirit and Truth: The Holy Spirit works through the truth externally revealed in nature and Scripture.
• Atonement: There can be no proper doctrine of atonement and retribution as long as Holiness is refused its preeminence.
• Justification: God must be reconciled before man can be saved, and the human conscience can be pacified only if propitiation is made to the divine Righteousness.
• Pelagianism vs Augustinianism: The question of whether redemption and sanctification are the work of man or of God defines the conflict between Pelagianism and Augustinianism.
• Universality of Sin and Redemption: All nations have shared the same degradation because of the transgression of the original parents, and can obtain recovery only through the mediation of that divine Person, who allied himself to the whole human race.
• The way to escape condemnation: There is but one means of escaping condemnation with its consequences, and this is announced in the gospel of Christ: He that believeth on him (the Son) is not condemned.

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Pelagianism and Augustinianism offer contrasting perspectives on key theological concepts such as free will, sin, grace, and redemption. The viewpoints of Pelagius, a British monk, and St. Augustine, the bishop of Hippo, stood in opposition to each other, initiating a prolonged debate in the Christian church.

Pelagianism:

• Free Will: Pelagius emphasized the freedom of the human will, asserting that individuals have the inherent capacity to choose good or evil. He argued that people are now as capable of obedience to God's will as Adam was before the Fall. According to Pelagius, it is within the power of one's own will to do anything or not to do it.
• Sin: Pelagius denied that Adam's sin injured the human race, contending that Adam's sin only affected himself. He posited that humans are born without vice as well as without virtue. Pelagius believed that even before Christ some men lived who did not commit sin.
• Grace: In Pelagian theology, grace is understood primarily as the natural endowments given to humanity at creation, such as reason and free will. While acknowledging the necessity of external grace, such as the doctrines and motives of the Gospel, Pelagius rejected the necessity of internal grace or the aids of the divine Spirit.
• Redemption: Pelagius held that individuals are responsible for their own salvation and can achieve it through their own efforts, without the necessity of divine intervention. Pelagianism starts from man and seeks to work itself upward gradually, by means of an imaginary good-will, to holiness and communion with God.

Augustinianism:

• Free Will: Augustine, in contrast, argued that human will is weakened by original sin. After the fall, human nature was totally corrupted, and deprived of all inclination and ability to do good. He emphasized the necessity of divine grace for any good action.
• Sin: Augustine asserted that original sin is inherited from Adam and corrupts human nature, inclining it toward evil. Augustine maintained that original sin was derived from our first parents.
• Grace: Augustine stressed the absolute necessity of divine grace, which he described as irresistible and given only to a select few. Divine grace, or the influence of the Holy Spirit, is essential for obedience to the law of God.
• Redemption: Augustinianism posits that redemption and sanctification are the work of God, with grace providing new life and the power to do good. God has from all eternity determined to choose from the mass of mankind, lost in guilt and corruption, a certain number to be transformed to holiness, and to be admitted after this life to eternal happiness.

Comparison:

Feature	Pelagianism	Augustinianism
Free Will	Strong emphasis on human free will and capacity for good	Human will weakened by original sin, necessitating divine grace
Sin	Denial of original sin's impact on human nature	Emphasis on original sin as corrupting human nature
Grace	Primarily external, consisting of natural endowments	Primarily internal, consisting of divine assistance necessary for salvation
Redemption	Achieved through individual effort and moral improvement	Achieved through divine grace and predestination

Additional Insights:

• Semi-Pelagianism: Semi-Pelagianism emerged as a compromise, positing that humans initiate faith, but require God's grace to continue.
• Historical Context: The Pelagian controversy spurred thorough investigations of original sin and divine grace, shaping subsequent theological discourse.
• Modern Interpretations: Pelagianism is seen as a precursor to rationalism, emphasizing human reason and autonomy. Socinians and Unitarians are more modern advocates of the general scheme.
• Theological Implications: The debate between Pelagianism and Augustinianism touches on fundamental questions about human nature, divine sovereignty, and the means of salvation.

It is important to note that many understandings of Pelagius's views come through the writings of his opponents.

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Gnosticism significantly impacted early Christianity by attempting to blend Christian doctrines with elements of Greek and Oriental philosophy, leading to numerous heresies and theological challenges.

Here's a breakdown of Gnosticism's impact:

• Syncretism: Gnostics blended the philosophy of the East and Greece with Christian doctrines, boasting a deeper understanding of Scripture and theology. They attempted to explain the New Testament using philosophical dogmas and derive mysteries from sacred writings that were never intended. This syncretic approach led to the corruption of the Christian faith.
• Heresies: Gnosticism is not so properly a distinct sect as a generic term, comprehending all who, forsaking the simplicity of the Gospel, pretended to be “wise above what is written”. Several early Christian figures and groups, such as Cerinthus, Nicolaitans, Ebionites, Basilidians, Carpocratians, and Valentinians, were associated with Gnostic beliefs.
• Dualism and Docetism: Gnostic systems often embraced dualistic views, positing that good and evil originated from separate principles. Matter was seen as evil, leading to Docetism, the belief that Christ's physical body was merely an illusion. This undermined the reality of the Incarnation and redemption.
• Christology: Gnostics struggled to reconcile the divinity of Christ with the material world, which they viewed as evil. Some Gnostics denied that Christ had a real body, claiming he was a phantom, while others argued that the divine Christ descended upon the human Jesus at his baptism, only to leave him before the crucifixion. Cerinthus is said to have maintained that Jesus had a real body and human parents but that Christ, an Æon, descended on him at baptism.
• Rejection of key Christian doctrines: Gnostics denied the Divinity of Christ by an hypostatical union, saying, the Divine inhabited, but was not united to, the human nature.
• Influence on other groups: Gnostic intermediaries were logical outcome of the Pharisees overdoing the idea of God's transcendence.
• Moral Impact: Some Gnostic groups, like the Cainites, promoted libertine behavior, claiming that satisfying lusts and engaging in wicked actions was a path to salvation. The Nicolaitans held that all pleasures were good.
• Gnostic Gospels: The Cainites relied on the Gospel of Judas and composed a book called St. Paul’s Ascension to Heaven, filled with blasphemies.
• Early Church Fathers' Response: The early church fathers, such as Irenaeus and Clement of Alexandria, actively combatted Gnostic teachings, defending the orthodox Christian faith. Irenaeus stated that Cerinthus openly taught Gnostic principles before the Gospel of John was published. St. John wrote his Gospel to counter the errors spread by Cerinthus and the Ebionites, who denied Christ's preexistence.
• New Testament Warnings: The Apostle Paul cautioned the Colossians against being deceived by philosophy and empty deceit, referring to Gnostic and other philosophical systems. He also warned Timothy against "profane babblings" and "antitheses of the Gnosis which is falsely so called". The Apostle John seems to have referred to the Naassenians or Ophites. The prophetic words addressed by St. Paul to the Church of Ephesus, warned of men speaking perverse things.
• Transformation of Christianity: Gnosticism aspired to transform the Christian creed, elevate its faith into philosophy, and then make this knowledge replace faith, love, holiness, and redemption.
• Gnostic Elements: Gnosticism included the Platonic doctrine of ideas, mystical and cabalistic jargon, and the oriental notion of two independent coeternal principles.
• Gnostic thought still exists: Though Gnosticism was an ancient heresy, the atmosphere of the Christian world is still infected with unwholesome subtleties, with truth manipulated into deadly error.
• Alexandria: At Alexandria, the theological system of Plato was introduced into philosophical and Christian schools, blending Platonic sentiments and expressions with Christianity.

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The schism between the Greek and Latin churches, also known as the Great Schism, was the culmination of a number of long-developing disputes, separating the Eastern (Greek) and Western (Latin) branches of Christianity.

Key factors that led to the schism include:

• Liturgical and Doctrinal Differences: Disputes over practices such as the use of images in churches and the procession of the Holy Spirit ("filioque" clause) created significant friction. The Greek church denied the Holy Ghost proceeded from both the Father and the Son, unlike the Latin church. The Western Church's alteration of the eucharistical bread also caused disputes, as it was seen as deviating from the original form.

• Authority and Jurisdiction: A major point of contention was the authority of the Pope. The Patriarch of Constantinople sought to free himself from papal authority, while the Pope insisted on putting down the use of all images and pictures in his own church and at Rome. The Eastern Churches resented the growing power of the popes and their interference in the East. The fourth Lateran Council in 1215 was the first to recognize the Roman see as supreme over the Church.

  • The Council of Ephesus decreed that no bishop should assume authority over provinces not originally under their jurisdiction.

• Political Factors: Political tensions between the Eastern and Western Roman Empires exacerbated religious differences. Emperors of the East sought to lessen the influence of other patriarchates to elevate that of Constantinople.

• Mutual Excommunications: The escalating disputes led to mutual excommunications in 1054 AD when Pope Leo excommunicated the Patriarch Michael Cerularius and his adherents, and the Greek patriarch retaliated by excommunicating the Pope's legates and their followers in a public council.

• Cultural and Linguistic Differences: The use of different languages (Greek in the East and Latin in the West) in their devotions contributed to misunderstandings and a lack of unity.

• Rejection of Papal Supremacy: The Greek Church does not recognize the Pope's authority and denies that the Church of Rome is the only true Catholic Church.

• Iconoclasm: The Iconoclast controversy, involving the rejection or destruction of religious images, deepened the divide. Opposition to images began in the eighth century under Greek emperors. Although the Greek church eventually rejected image worship, they retained pictures. The Latin church, however, not only retained images but also used them as a medium for worship.

• Synods and Councils: The differing views and actions taken by synods and councils in the East and West reflected and reinforced the growing schism.

• Filioque Controversy: The addition of the word "filioque" (and the Son) to the Nicene Creed by the Western Church, asserting that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father and the Son, was rejected by the Eastern Church, which maintained that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father only. This theological difference became a major point of contention.

  • The Nicene and Athanasian creeds are the symbols of the Greek Church’s faith, except for the filioque.

These factors, unfolding over centuries, led to the formal separation between the Greek and Latin churches, creating a lasting division within Christianity.

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The relationship between the laity and the clergy is defined by distinct roles, responsibilities, and mutual obligations within the Christian Church. This relationship involves both a hierarchical structure and a spiritual connection, with the clergy set apart for specific sacred duties and the laity participating in the duties and privileges of religion amidst their secular lives.

Key aspects of this relationship include:

• Distinct Roles: The clergy are divinely set apart for sacred offices, while the laity engage in religious duties and enjoy religious privileges while involved in secular affairs. The distinction between clergy and laity was derived from the Jewish Church and adopted by the apostles.
• Clergy: Bishops, priests, and deacons constitute the clergy. The role of the clergy includes preaching, administering sacraments, and providing spiritual guidance. Bishops are considered the successors of the apostles and have the authority to ordain ministers.
• Laity: The laity are the general members of the church, distinct from the ordained clergy. The laity have the same privilege of the Christian altar and, for their children, the same privilege of the Christian font.
• Interdependence: The clergy are set apart not only for their own benefit but for the benefit of the entire Church, including the laity. The laity, in turn, support the clergy through temporal means.
• Spiritual Character: The laity possess a spiritual character, participating in sacraments like baptism and the Eucharist. The Holy Spirit is available to all members of the Church, from the highest clergy to the lowest laity.
• Shared Privileges and Duties: Laity and clergy share spiritual benefits and common duties, differing mainly in the external manner of performance.
• Authority and Responsibility: Although lay people do not perform ordinations or consecrations, bishops and priests perform these acts with the authority vested in the Church as a whole, which includes both laity and clergy. If a Church falls into heresy, the laity is involved, and if the laity falls into spiritual error, the clergy is responsible.
• Mutual Responsibility: Clergy and laity share a mutual responsibility. The laity are responsible for the Church's proceedings, and the validity of sacraments, soundness of doctrine, and catholicity of fellowship concern them as much as the clergy.
• Laity's Influence: The laity's interest in the Church's regulations increases when considering its nature as a civil polity. The laity are most concerned regarding religious exercises' impact on their secular lives and in matters of collecting funds for religious purposes.
• Spiritual Character vs. Office: Every Christian possesses a spiritual character, not a spiritual office. Scriptural passages designating all people as priests refer to spiritual character and privileges, not the priestly office.
• No Human Lordship: There can be no rightful human lordship over God's heritage. The pastor is bound to be an impartial preacher of the truth, treating each member of the church as of equal importance.
• Private Judgment: Each member has the right to private judgment in discovering Christ's will from the Scriptures and is directly responsible to Christ.
• Ordination: Ordination is the setting apart of someone divinely called to ministry and doesn't involve communicating power, but recognizing powers previously conferred by God.

This relationship ensures the Church functions as a unified body with both the clergy and laity contributing to its spiritual and practical well-being.

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The concept of the personal priesthood of the believer emphasizes that every Christian has direct access to God through Christ, without needing a human mediator. This doctrine underscores the spiritual character and privileges of all members of the Church, not just the clergy.

Key aspects of the personal priesthood of the believer include:

• Direct Access to God: All believers can approach God directly through Jesus Christ. This access is facilitated by Christ's sacrifice and intercession, opening the way for reconciliation with God.
• Spiritual Sacrifices: Believers are enabled to offer themselves as spiritual sacrifices acceptable to God through Jesus Christ. These sacrifices include prayer, praise, and thanksgiving.
• Rejection of Sacerdotalism: The doctrine refutes the necessity of a mediating priest between individuals and God, challenging the notion that Christian ministers have sacrifices to offer.
• Universal Priesthood: Every Christian is considered a priest unto God. This universal priesthood is not one of expiation but of worship.
• Spiritual Character: The laity possess a spiritual character, participating in sacraments like baptism and the Eucharist. The Holy Spirit is available to all members of the Church, not just the clergy.
• No Special Commission: Christ never conferred the power of baptizing on any but the clergy, nor did the apostles ever impart it to any other but clergy.
• Equal Standing: Brethren recognize no separate orders of ‘clergy’ and ‘laity’—all are looked upon as equal in position.
• Individual Responsibility: Each member has the right of private judgment in discovering Christ's will from the Scriptures and is directly responsible to Christ.
• Responsibilities: Believers are closely connected with Christ, and whatever concerns Him concerns them.

Passages often cited in support of this doctrine:

• 1 Peter 2:5, 9: Christians are built up as a spiritual house, a holy priesthood, to offer up spiritual sacrifices to God through Jesus Christ, and are a chosen generation, a royal priesthood, a holy nation.
• Revelation 1:6: Christ has made believers kings and priests to God the Father.

The doctrine of the priesthood of all believers does not negate the role of the ordained ministry. Pastors and teachers are still needed for teaching and administering the ordinances. However, their role is not to mediate between God and humanity but to equip the saints for ministry. The pastor is only a priest, as every Christian is.

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The name Protestants originated from a protest against a decree issued at the Diet of Spire in 1529.

Here's a breakdown of the events that led to the name:

• Background: In 1529, Emperor Charles V called a diet (assembly) at Spire to address religious disputes arising from Martin Luther's opposition to the Catholic Church.
• The Decree: The Diet decreed that in areas that had adopted the new religion (Lutheranism), its adherents could continue practicing it until a council was convened. However, no Roman Catholic was allowed to become Lutheran, and the reformers were to preach nothing contrary to the Church's accepted doctrine. Furthermore, the decree aimed to restore the Edict of Worms in areas where it was accepted, and it stated that Sacramentarians (those who denied the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist) should be banished and Anabaptists put to death.
• The Protest: Six Lutheran princes and deputies from thirteen imperial towns formally protested this decree. They declared that they would appeal to a general council, as the decree was contrary to the gospel.
• Emergence of the Name: This solemn protest led to the followers of Luther being called Protestants. The name soon expanded to include Calvinists and other Christian sects that had separated from the Roman Catholic Church.

It's important to note that the term "Protestant" initially referred to Lutherans but later became a general term for various Christian denominations protesting against Roman Catholicism.

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