Research this KJV Bible Verse Romans 1:20 For the invisible things of him from the creation of the world are clearly seen, being understood by the things that are made, even his eternal power and Godhead; so that they are without excuse. Include a study of the cognitive tools available for making the invisible spiritual knowledge visible to the cognitive mind.
17 For therein* is the righteousness of God revealed from faith to faith: as it is written*, The just shall live by faith.
Perceiving the Invisible: An Analysis of Romans 1:20 and the Cognitive Apprehension of God through Creation
1. Introduction: Perceiving the Invisible – Romans 1:20 and the Knowledge of God
The Epistle to the Romans stands as a cornerstone of Christian theology, and within its opening chapter lies a verse of profound significance for understanding God's relationship with humanity and the created order. Romans 1:20 presents a striking claim: that aspects of God, though inherently invisible, are made "clearly seen" and "understood" through the tangible reality of "the things that are made." This assertion forms a foundational text for the doctrine of Natural Revelation, the concept that God discloses certain truths about Himself universally through the medium of creation.
This report undertakes a multi-disciplinary analysis of Romans 1:20, aiming to explore the depths of its meaning and implications. It will integrate insights from biblical exegesis, systematic theology, the philosophy of religion, and relevant concepts from cognitive science. The central purpose is to investigate the paradox presented in the text: how can invisible divine attributes be rendered perceptible to the human mind? What cognitive, rational, and perhaps intuitive faculties enable this apprehension of the spiritual via the physical?
The analysis will proceed by first examining the text itself within its immediate literary context in Romans 1. Subsequently, it will delve into a detailed theological exegesis of the key terms and concepts within the verse. This leads naturally to an exploration of the doctrine of Natural Revelation, its scope, content, and purpose as understood within Christian theology. The report will then engage with the epistemological challenges of knowing an invisible God, surveying different philosophical frameworks for understanding how religious knowledge, particularly knowledge derived from nature, might be justified or warranted.
A core component of this investigation involves identifying and analyzing potential "cognitive tools"—frameworks, faculties, or processes discussed in theology, philosophy, and cognitive science—that may be involved in perceiving or inferring divine realities from the observable world. These tools, ranging from reason and analogy to intuition and innate senses like the sensus divinitatis, and potentially including cognitive biases identified by science, will be examined for their function in relation to the claim of Romans 1:20. Finally, the report will assess the sufficiency and inherent limitations of the knowledge gained through natural revelation, contrasting it with the necessity and scope of special revelation as presented in Christian doctrine.
The central question animating this report concerns the bridge between the invisible divine and the visible creation, and the cognitive capacities that allow humans to traverse it. How are God's "eternal power and Godhead" made "clearly seen" in a world apprehended by finite minds? Exploring this question touches upon enduring themes relevant to theological anthropology (the human capacity to know God), apologetics (arguments for God's existence based on creation), the complex relationship between faith and reason, and the ongoing dialogue between theological perspectives and scientific understandings of human cognition and the cosmos. Romans 1:20 invites a deep reflection on how creation itself speaks, and how the human mind is equipped—or fails—to hear its testimony.
2. Romans 1:20 in Context: Text and Argument
To grasp the full import of Romans 1:20, it must be situated within the immediate flow of the Apostle Paul's argument in the first chapter of his letter to the church in Rome.
(1) KJV Text Presentation:
The verse in the King James Version reads:
"For the invisible things of him from the creation of the world are clearly seen, being understood by the things that are made, even his eternal power and Godhead; so that they are without excuse." 1
(2) Literary Context (Romans 1:18-25):
Paul's argument in this section begins not with a neutral description of God's revelation in nature, but with a declaration of divine judgment.
Argument Flow: In Romans 1:18, Paul asserts, "For the wrath of God is revealed from heaven against all ungodliness and unrighteousness of men, who hold [suppress] the truth in unrighteousness".3 This immediately frames the subsequent discussion within a context of human culpability and divine justice. The reason for this revealed wrath is the active suppression of truth by sinful humanity.
Manifest Knowledge: Verse 19 clarifies what this suppressed truth entails: "Because that which may be known of God is manifest in them; for God hath shewed it unto them".3 Paul claims that fundamental knowledge about God is not hidden but is made plain (phaneron) or evident. The phrase "manifest in them" (en autois) suggests an internal awareness or accessibility within human consciousness, potentially pointing towards innate faculties or conscience, because God Himself actively revealed it.
Verse 20 as Explanation: Romans 1:20 then functions as the crucial explanation of how God has made this knowledge manifest. It specifies the means: "by the things that are made" (tois poiēmasin), referring to the created order. It also specifies the content revealed: God's "invisible things," namely His "eternal power and Godhead." The verse asserts that this revelation is objectively clear ("clearly seen," kathoratai) and intellectually apprehensible ("being understood," nooumena).
Consequence: Culpability: The direct logical consequence of this clear, accessible, and understandable revelation is stated unequivocally at the end of verse 20: "so that they are without excuse" (eis to einai autous anapologētous).3 Because God has made Himself known through creation in a way that can be perceived and understood, humanity has no valid defense (apologia) for its failure to acknowledge Him.10
Human Response (Suppression): Verses 21-25 detail the tragic trajectory of the human response to this revelation. Despite possessing this knowledge ("Because that, when they knew God," v. 21a), humanity universally failed in its obligation: "they glorified him not as God, neither were thankful" (v. 21b).3 This failure led to intellectual and spiritual decline: "became vain in their imaginations, and their foolish heart was darkened" (v. 21b).
Professing wisdom, they descended into foolishness (v. 22) and idolatry, exchanging God's glory for images of created things (v. 23). Ultimately, they "changed the truth of God into a lie, and worshipped and served the creature more than the Creator" (v. 25). God's response to this willful rejection is described as giving them up to further sin (v. 24, 26, 28).
The structure of Paul's argument reveals that the primary function of verse 20 within this context is judicial. It establishes the universal availability and clarity of knowledge about God derived from creation, not merely as an abstract epistemological point, but as the basis for demonstrating humanity's universal guilt and inexcusability before God's judgment. The knowledge accessible through creation carries inherent moral obligations—to glorify and thank the Creator—and it is the willful failure to meet these obligations, stemming from the suppression of truth, that incurs divine wrath.
Furthermore, the juxtaposition of verse 19 ("manifest in them") and verse 20 ("understood by the things that are made") hints at a dynamic interplay between internal human capacities and the external evidence of creation. The internal manifestation might refer to the cognitive or spiritual faculties (like reason, conscience, or an innate sense of the divine) that enable the mind to process and interpret the testimony of the created order.
The external creation provides the data, while the internal faculty allows that data to be "understood" as pointing to the Creator's power and divinity. This potential synergy between the internal and external anticipates the later exploration of specific cognitive tools involved in apprehending God through nature.
3. Unpacking Romans 1:20: Theological Exegesis
A deeper understanding of Romans 1:20 requires careful attention to the specific Greek terms Paul employs and their theological weight.
"Invisible things" (Gr. ta aorata): This refers to God's attributes, characteristics, or perfections which, because God is spirit 10, are not accessible to direct physical sight.10 They stand in contrast to the visible, tangible "things that are made." These are the aspects of God's nature that can only be known indirectly or inferentially.
"From the creation of the world" (Gr. apo ktiseōs kosmou): This phrase primarily denotes a temporal starting point: this revelation has been continuously available since the very beginning of the created cosmos.11 It also implicitly points to the means of revelation – it is from or by means of the creation that these truths are known.18
"Clearly seen" (Gr. kathoratai): This verb, derived from horaō (to see) with the intensifying prefix kata-, emphasizes the clarity, plainness, and objective perceptibility of God's invisible attributes through their manifestation in creation.10 The revelation itself is presented as unambiguous and evident, leaving no ground for genuine ignorance from the standpoint of the evidence provided.10
"Being understood" (Gr. nooumena): This participle comes from noeō, referring to perception by the mind, intellectual apprehension, or understanding achieved through thought and reflection.10 It signifies that grasping God's attributes through creation involves cognitive activity; it is not merely passive observation but an active process of the intellect engaging with the evidence of the created world.10
"By the things that are made" (Gr. tois poiēmasin): The dative plural of poiēma refers to God's works, His creations, His handiwork – the entire observable universe.10 This encompasses both the initial act of creation and God's ongoing providential activity within it.18 These created things serve as the medium, the effects, through which the nature of the invisible Cause is discerned.
"Eternal power" (Gr. hē te aidios autou dynamis): Paul specifies the first attribute clearly perceived: God's power (dynamis), qualified as "eternal" (aidios). This term, used only here and in Jude 6 in the New Testament, signifies everlasting, unending, inexhaustible power.10 Such power is inferred from the sheer existence, magnitude, complexity, and sustenance of the cosmos.11 It highlights a fundamental contrast between the Creator's unlimited nature and the limited, contingent, and perishable character of creation itself.10
"Godhead" (Gr. theiotēs): The second specified attribute is theiotēs. This term refers to the quality of divinity, the divine nature, or what pertains to God, distinguishing Him from all created beings.10 It signifies the sum of God's attributes that constitute His divinity.10 Theologians often distinguish theiotēs (divinity, divine quality/nature, used here) from theotēs (Godhood, the very essence of Deity, used in Colossians 2:9 to describe the fullness of God dwelling in Christ).10 Romans 1:20 claims that creation reveals God's divine quality – that the Creator possesses a nature transcending the created order – rather than the fullness of His divine essence or His specific identity as, for example, the Triune God.10
"So that they are without excuse" (Gr. eis to einai autous anapologētous): This phrase states the purpose and consequence of the clear revelation. Anapologētos literally means "without a defense speech" or "without an apology".11 It signifies that, given the clarity and accessibility of the knowledge of God's power and divinity through creation, humanity has no justifiable defense or excuse for its failure to acknowledge, worship, and thank Him.10 It implies a state of legal culpability before the judgment seat of God.10
The specific attributes Paul highlights—eternal power and divinity (theiotēs)—are notably those that seem most directly inferable through reason observing the effects of creation. Observing the vastness and complexity of the universe ("things that are made") leads the reflecting mind ("being understood") to posit a cause possessing immense power.
The nature of this creation, seemingly brought into being and ordered, points to a cause that transcends the mundane and possesses a divine quality. Paul's focus on these particular attributes suggests they represent the core knowledge obtainable through the rational contemplation of nature, sufficient to establish basic awareness of God and consequent accountability.
However, the emphatic language used ("clearly seen," "without excuse") creates a significant theological tension. If the revelation is so clear, why is the universal human response, according to Paul himself in the following verses, one of suppression, futility, and idolatry? This apparent contradiction underscores the crucial distinction between the objective reality and clarity of the revelation itself and the subjective state of the human perceiver. While the evidence in creation is plain, the human mind and will, affected by sin (often discussed theologically as the "noetic effects of sin" 23), are portrayed as either unable or unwilling to properly receive, interpret, and respond to that evidence. The cognitive tools for perception may exist, but they are either damaged by the fall or willfully misused in rebellion against the truth they reveal. This highlights that the problem lies not in the insufficiency of the revelation for its intended purpose (establishing accountability), but in the condition of the human heart and mind.
4. The Doctrine of Natural Revelation
The concepts articulated in Romans 1:19-20 form a cornerstone for the theological doctrine known as Natural Revelation, often used interchangeably with General Revelation.
Definition and Grounding: Natural Revelation refers to God's self-disclosure that is available to all human beings, in all places, and at all times, primarily through the medium of the created order (nature).25 Some theologians extend its scope to include the testimony of human conscience and the unfolding of history or divine providence.26 Romans 1:19-20 is arguably the most explicit and foundational New Testament passage supporting this doctrine, asserting that knowledge of God's power and divinity is clearly perceived through creation.25
Another key text frequently cited is Psalm 19:1-6, which poetically describes the heavens "declaring the glory of God" and the skies "proclaiming the work of his hands" day and night across the whole earth.17
Scope and Content: Based primarily on Romans 1:20, the content of natural revelation is generally understood to include knowledge of God's existence, His "eternal power," and His "divine nature" (theiotēs).25 It provides what some theologians term a "rudimentary understanding" of the Creator and His basic attributes, as well as an awareness of fundamental moral demands, often linked to conscience.33 It reveals that God is and something of what He is like (powerful, divine), but not the specifics of His character or redemptive plan.27
Universality and Purpose: A defining characteristic of natural revelation is its universal availability – it is accessible to every person regardless of culture, location, or historical era.25 Its primary theological purpose, as inferred from the argument in Romans 1, is not salvific but judicial: it renders all humanity accountable before God.10 By making basic knowledge of the Creator accessible to all, natural revelation establishes a universal basis for moral responsibility and ensures that humanity is "without excuse" for failing to acknowledge and honor God, even those who have never heard the specific precepts of the Mosaic Law or the Christian Gospel.25 It grounds God's righteous judgment upon all sin.25
Debates on Scope (Integration with Science): While the core content derived from Romans 1:20 focuses on knowledge of God, debates exist regarding the broader scope of natural revelation. Some theologians and philosophers argue that natural revelation encompasses all truth discoverable through the natural exercise of human reason and observation, including scientific, mathematical, and philosophical truths.30 Others maintain a narrower definition, limiting it strictly to the revelation of God's attributes through creation, conscience, and providence, arguing that scientific knowledge, while potentially compatible with theology, is not revelation per se.30 This debate becomes particularly relevant when scientific findings appear to conflict with interpretations of special revelation (Scripture), raising questions about the relative authority of these two "books" of revelation.34
The doctrine of natural revelation, as grounded in Romans 1, serves a critical function within Paul's larger theological framework concerning universal sin and justification. By establishing that a fundamental awareness of the Creator is universally accessible through the created order, Paul lays the groundwork for the universal accountability of all humanity—Jew and Gentile alike. This accessible knowledge creates an obligation to respond with worship and gratitude. The failure to do so, described as suppressing the truth, constitutes the basis for God's righteous judgment on all people, irrespective of their access to the specific covenants or scriptures of special revelation. Natural revelation thus functions as a universal legal premise, ensuring that no one can plead complete ignorance as a defense before God.
Furthermore, the very concept of natural revelation implies that the created universe is not merely inert matter or a collection of random phenomena. It possesses a communicative or semiotic quality; it "declares," "proclaims," and "reveals knowledge" about its Maker.25 Psalm 19 emphasizes this communicative aspect, even while noting its non-verbal nature ("no speech, no words").31 This suggests that creation is imbued with signs, patterns, and structures that point beyond themselves to an intelligent, powerful, and divine source. Consequently, apprehending this revelation requires cognitive faculties capable of perceiving, interpreting, and understanding these natural signs—a process Paul encapsulates in the phrase "being understood by the things that are made."
5. Epistemological Pathways: Knowing the Invisible God
Romans 1:20's claim that invisible divine attributes are "clearly seen" and "understood" through visible creation immediately engages fundamental questions within the philosophy of religion, specifically in the field of religious epistemology.35 The core challenge is understanding how finite, embodied human minds can acquire knowledge or justified belief about an infinite, invisible, transcendent God.
Evidentialism: One prominent approach is evidentialism, which posits that a belief is epistemically justified (or warranted) only if it is supported by adequate evidence.35 Applied to religious belief, this means that belief in God, to be rational, must be based on sufficient proof, whether empirical or rational. A stricter form, often associated with the Enlightenment, demands that this evidence be publicly accessible and universally compelling, often excluding private religious experiences or appeals to faith or authority.36 If arguments for God's existence based on observing the world (like those suggested by Romans 1:20) are merely probable rather than conclusive, strict evidentialism might imply that full, certain belief in God is not justified.35
Natural Theology as Response: Natural theology represents a direct attempt to meet the evidentialist challenge. It seeks to provide rational arguments for God's existence and attributes based on observations of the natural world and the exercise of human reason, without relying on special revelation.36 The classic example is Thomas Aquinas's "Five Ways," which argue from motion, causality, contingency, gradation of perfection, and design (or governance) in the world to the existence of God as the Unmoved Mover, First Cause, Necessary Being, Maximally Perfect Being, and Intelligent Designer.45 Such arguments attempt to demonstrate that belief in God is reasonable and supported by evidence accessible through nature, aligning with the inferential aspect ("being understood") of Romans 1:20.
Permissive Epistemologies (Challenges to Strict Evidentialism): Dissatisfaction with the perceived stringency of evidentialism has led to alternative epistemological frameworks:
Reformed Epistemology: Primarily associated with philosophers like Alvin Plantinga and Nicholas Wolterstorff, Reformed epistemology challenges the assumption that belief in God must be based on inferential evidence to be rational.36 It argues that belief in God can be "properly basic"—that is, justified or warranted in itself without being inferred from other beliefs, much like beliefs derived from perception, memory, or introspection. According to Plantinga, such beliefs can be warranted if they are produced by properly functioning cognitive faculties in appropriate circumstances.36
One such proposed faculty is the sensus divinitatis (sense of divinity), an innate capacity to form beliefs about God triggered by experiences such as observing the grandeur of creation, experiencing guilt, or sensing divine presence.46 This approach resonates with the idea of knowledge being "manifest in them" (Rom 1:19) and potentially perceived directly through creation, rather than solely inferred from it.
Faith and Reason: The relationship between faith and reason is complex, with various models proposed. Some see them in conflict, while others see them as incompatible but occupying separate domains (compartmentalism).48 Compatibilist models view reason as supporting faith (weak compatibility) or see them as organically connected, as in natural theology (strong compatibility).48
Some perspectives argue that faith, understood as trust or commitment, precedes and grounds rational inquiry into God 49, while others maintain that reason establishes the grounds for faith.50 Romans 1:20, emphasizing understanding through creation, seems to support a compatibilist view where reason engages with the natural world to apprehend divine truths.
Role of Intuition and Experience: Beyond formal arguments, many traditions emphasize the role of direct experience, intuition, mystical insight, or personal encounter as valid pathways to knowing God.42 John Henry Newman, for example, spoke of an "illative sense" through which an accumulation of probabilities and informal inferences could lead to rational certainty in belief.36 This acknowledges that human knowing often involves more than deductive logic, incorporating intuitive judgments and personal apprehension.49
The contrast between evidentialism and Reformed epistemology offers different lenses through which to interpret Romans 1:20. An evidentialist reading naturally focuses on the rational process: creation ("things that are made") provides the evidence, and reason ("being understood") draws inferences about God's power and divinity.
This aligns well with the tradition of natural theology. A Reformed epistemology reading, however, might emphasize the possibility of a more direct perception. Creation could serve as the trigger or occasion for an innate faculty like the sensus divinitatis (potentially linked to the knowledge being "manifest in them" in v. 19) to form a non-inferential, properly basic belief about God's attributes. The phrase "clearly seen" could suggest this more immediate, perceptual quality, while "being understood" still acknowledges the cognitive nature of the event.
Ultimately, the choice of epistemological framework shapes the understanding of the "cognitive tools" deemed necessary or operative in fulfilling the claim of Romans 1:20. Evidentialism elevates reason, logic, and empirical observation as the primary tools.
Reformed epistemology posits specialized, innate cognitive faculties designed for religious belief formation. Experiential accounts highlight intuition, affective responses, and the capacity for direct spiritual perception. Therefore, identifying the tools for knowing the invisible God is inextricably linked to underlying assumptions about the nature and justification of religious knowledge itself.
6. Cognitive Tools for Spiritual Perception
Building on the epistemological discussion, we can identify a range of potential "cognitive tools"—faculties, frameworks, methods, or even biases—that have been proposed in theological, philosophical, and cognitive scientific literature as mechanisms enabling the human mind to apprehend or infer spiritual realities from the observable world, as suggested by Romans 1:20.
(Point 6) Identifying Potential Tools: These tools represent the diverse ways the human cognitive apparatus might engage with the created order ("the things that are made") to grasp something of the Creator's "invisible things."
Theological and Philosophical Tools:
Reason: This fundamental human capacity for logical thought, inference, deduction, induction, and making sense of experience is central.40 In the context of Romans 1:20, reason analyzes the evidence of creation—its order, complexity, contingency, perceived design—to infer the existence and attributes (power, divinity) of a Creator. This is the primary tool employed in natural theology, exemplified by Aquinas's arguments from causality, motion, and design.45
Analogy: A specific application of reason crucial for theological language. Since God infinitely transcends creation, direct description is impossible. Analogy allows us to predicate attributes (like "good," "wise," "powerful") derived from creaturely perfections to God, while acknowledging that these terms apply differently to the Creator than to the creature.52 Aquinas distinguished between the modus significandi (our human way of signifying, often derived from composite beings) and the modus essendi (God's simple, perfect way of being), allowing meaningful, albeit imperfect, speech about God based on the Creator-creature relationship.52 It helps bridge the infinite gap suggested by "invisible things."
Intuition/Apprehension: This refers to a more direct, non-discursive grasping of truth or reality, often described as immediate insight.42 In a religious context, it might involve a sudden awareness of God's presence, power, or beauty triggered by an experience of nature, or a "preconceptual faculty" sensing the divine glory.56 Stephen Evans suggests humans might follow "natural signs" in creation (like beauty or contingency) that intuitively point towards God.49 This aligns with personal, experiential knowledge of God.
Sensus Divinitatis (Sense of Divinity): Proposed by John Calvin and developed by Alvin Plantinga, this is conceived as an innate, natural faculty, instinct, or cognitive mechanism specifically oriented towards perceiving God.24 Like sight perceives light, the sensus divinitatis perceives God, producing basic beliefs about His existence, power, and divinity, often triggered by experiences of creation, conscience, or providence.47 Plantinga argues beliefs formed this way can be properly basic and warranted.46 Though distorted by sin, Calvin believed this sense is never entirely effaced.24 It offers a direct explanation for the universal awareness Paul assumes in Romans 1.
Conscience: Often understood as an internal moral faculty that discerns right and wrong, conscience is sometimes viewed as a source of general revelation, reflecting a divinely imprinted moral law or awareness of God's standards.26 Paul's reference to the law "written on their hearts" (Rom 2:14-15) is often linked to this concept.46 Observing moral order (or disorder) in the world might trigger reflection on a divine Lawgiver.
Contemplation/Pattern Recognition: This involves the ability to perceive and appreciate order, harmony, beauty, complexity, and apparent purposefulness within the natural world.45 Recognizing these patterns, which seem unlikely to arise from mere chance, leads the mind to infer an intelligent source or Designer behind them. This is the core logic of teleological arguments, such as Aquinas's Fifth Way.45
Insights from Cognitive Science of Religion (CSR): CSR investigates the evolved cognitive processes underlying religious thought and behavior, often proposing naturalistic explanations for phenomena traditionally understood theologically.
Hyperactive Agency Detection Device (HADD): This theory posits an evolved cognitive bias to readily attribute agency (the capacity for intentional action) to ambiguous events or patterns in the environment.61 Because failing to detect a real agent (e.g., a predator or rival) is potentially more costly than falsely detecting one, this system is hypothesized to be "hyperactive," leading to frequent false positives. This tendency could explain the widespread human inclination to perceive unseen intentional forces (spirits, gods) behind natural phenomena like storms, diseases, or unusual occurrences.62
Design/Teleology Perception: CSR researchers also study an intuitive human tendency to perceive purpose, function, and design in natural objects, even inanimate ones ("promiscuous teleology").64 This bias towards seeing things as being for something could provide a cognitive foundation for teleological arguments and the belief in a Creator who designed the world with specific ends in mind.
Minimally Counterintuitive Concepts (MCI): While not directly a tool for perceiving God, MCI theory explains why concepts involving supernatural agents (like invisible beings with minds and intentions, slightly violating intuitive physics or biology) are particularly memorable and easily transmitted culturally.61
Dual Processing (Intuitive vs. Reflective): CSR often utilizes dual-process models of cognition, distinguishing between System 1 (fast, automatic, intuitive, often unconscious processes like HADD) and System 2 (slow, deliberate, effortful, conscious reasoning).69 Many basic religious intuitions (like sensing agency or purpose) are thought to arise from System 1, while formal theological reasoning and argumentation engage System 2.69 Natural theological beliefs might thus be rooted in intuitive processes but articulated and defended through reflective ones.
A striking observation emerges when comparing the theological/philosophical tools with those identified by CSR. Concepts like the sensus divinitatis or the inference of design from creation describe phenomena remarkably similar to those explained by HADD and teleological biases. Both frameworks point to deep-seated human tendencies to perceive agency and purpose operating in the world around them.
The fundamental divergence lies in the interpretation of these tendencies. Theological perspectives often view them as part of a divinely designed cognitive endowment intended to lead humans towards knowledge of the Creator (thus potentially veridical). CSR typically interprets them as products of evolutionary processes—either adaptations or byproducts (spandrels)—that may or may not accurately reflect reality, often focusing on their survival or social advantages rather than their truth value.61
Furthermore, the dual-processing model from CSR provides a potentially useful framework for categorizing the different cognitive tools. Intuition, the sensus divinitatis, and perhaps the raw output of HADD or teleological perception could be seen as operating primarily at the intuitive (System 1) level, providing immediate perceptions, feelings, or basic beliefs. Reason, analogy, and the structured arguments of natural theology clearly belong to the reflective (System 2) domain, involving conscious analysis, evaluation, and articulation. These two systems likely interact; for instance, reflective reason might analyze and build upon an initial intuition, or conversely, theological instruction (System 2) might shape or prime intuitive responses (System 1).62
7. Synthesizing Tools and Text: How Creation Speaks to the Mind
Having identified a range of potential cognitive tools, the next step is to analyze how they might function individually and collectively to facilitate the process described in Romans 1:20: making God's "invisible things... clearly seen, being understood by the things that are made."
(Point 7) Connecting Tools to Romans 1:20:
Reason and Analogy: These tools directly address the "being understood" (nooumena) aspect of the verse, which implies intellectual apprehension. Reason allows the mind to move inferentially from the observed effects in creation (its existence, order, complexity, contingency) to the necessary attributes of its Cause (power, divinity). Aquinas's arguments exemplify this process: the existence of motion implies an Unmoved Mover; the chain of causality implies a First Cause; the appearance of design implies an Intelligent Designer.45 Analogy then provides a disciplined way to apply terms derived from creation (like "power" or even qualities contributing to "divinity") to the transcendent Creator, acknowledging the vast difference in the mode of being while affirming a real, though limited, point of comparison grounded in the Creator-creature relationship.52
Sensus Divinitatis / Intuition: This proposed innate faculty or intuitive capacity could explain the immediacy suggested by "clearly seen" (kathoratai) and the internal awareness implied by "manifest in them" (v. 19). Rather than a laborious inferential process, the sensus divinitatis might provide a more direct, albeit perhaps vague or pre-conceptual, awareness of God's presence, power, or majesty when confronted with the grandeur or intricacy of creation.47 This immediate "sense" could form the basis for a properly basic belief in God, as Plantinga suggests.47 Intuition, more broadly, could involve moments of direct apprehension of divine reality mediated through natural beauty or order.49
HADD / Agency Detection: From a CSR perspective, the HADD offers a potential cognitive mechanism underlying the widespread human tendency to perceive agency behind natural events, which Paul seems to take for granted.61 Observing powerful or inexplicable natural phenomena ("things that are made") could trigger this hyperactive system, leading individuals to infer the action of an unseen agent. The perceived scale and nature of the phenomena (e.g., the power of a storm, the intricacy of life) could then lead to attributions of "eternal power" and a non-mundane, "divine" nature to this inferred agent.62 While CSR frames this as a bias, it could be seen theologically as a natural cognitive pathway God utilizes to foster awareness of His reality.
Design Perception / Pattern Recognition: The intuitive or reasoned recognition of order, functional complexity, and apparent purpose in the natural world ("things that are made") directly corresponds to Aquinas's Fifth Way and common teleological arguments.45 Perceiving the intricate design of an ecosystem, the fine-tuning of physical constants, or the complexity of biological organisms leads the mind ("being understood") to infer an intelligent Designer possessing the immense "power" required for such creation and a transcendent "divinity".64
Interaction of Tools: It is unlikely that these tools operate in complete isolation. A plausible scenario involves interaction: an initial, intuitive sense of awe or agency (sensus divinitatis or HADD-like perception) triggered by observing nature might prompt reflective reason to analyze the experience and formulate arguments (natural theology).69 Alternatively, rational contemplation of design in nature might awaken or confirm a latent sensus divinitatis. Analogy becomes necessary when reason attempts to articulate the nature of the inferred Creator using concepts derived from the created world.
The Role of Sin (Cognitive Distortion): Crucially, the effectiveness of these cognitive tools is profoundly impacted by the human condition as described by Paul. Sin introduces distortion, leading to the suppression of the truth (Rom 1:18) and misinterpretation.24 The sensus divinitatis may be present but dulled or ignored.24 Reason may be employed not to find the true God but to rationalize idolatry (Rom 1:21-23). Agency detection might lead to belief in myriad spirits or false gods rather than the one Creator. Design perception might result in worshipping the creation itself rather than the Creator (Rom 1:25). Thus, the gap between the objective clarity of the revelation ("clearly seen") and the subjective failure of humanity (suppression, idolatry) is explained by the noetic effects of sin corrupting the cognitive and volitional faculties.23
Consideration of these diverse tools suggests that God may utilize multiple cognitive avenues—rational inference, intuitive sensing, pattern recognition, perhaps even evolved cognitive tendencies—to ensure that the fundamental awareness of His eternal power and divinity is accessible to humanity through creation. From Paul's perspective in Romans 1, the precise mechanism seems less critical than the universal outcome: an inescapable awareness that grounds human accountability. Whether reached via the rigorous logic of Aquinas, the innate sensing described by Calvin, or even the cognitive biases explored by CSR, the result is that humanity "knew God" (Rom 1:21) sufficiently to be held responsible for their response, rendering them "without excuse."
The cognitive science perspective, particularly concerning HADD and teleological bias, offers a potential naturalistic framework for understanding the cognitive naturalness 64 or prevalence of the kind of widespread, intuitive belief in unseen agency and design that Paul assumes and Calvin attributes to the sensus divinitatis. While CSR does not inherently validate the truth of these beliefs, it suggests that the human mind may be naturally predisposed—whether by divine design or evolutionary contingency—to perceive the world in ways that readily lend themselves to religious interpretation, aligning with the core claim of Romans 1:20 that such understanding arises from observing "the things that are made."
8. The Scope of Natural Knowledge: Sufficiency and Limitations
While Romans 1:20 asserts the clarity and comprehensibility of God's revelation in nature, Christian theology has carefully delineated both the sufficiency and the significant limitations of the knowledge derived from this source.
(Point 8) Evaluating Sufficiency: There is broad theological consensus, stemming largely from the argument presented in Romans 1-3, that natural revelation is sufficient for its intended purpose: rendering all humanity accountable before God.10 It clearly demonstrates God's existence, His "eternal power," and His "divine nature" (theiotēs), leaving people "without excuse" for failing to acknowledge and honor their Creator.10 It establishes a universal basis for God's righteous judgment against sin, applicable even to those who have never received specific scriptural revelation.25
Identifying Limitations: Despite its sufficiency for establishing accountability, natural revelation possesses profound limitations:
Insufficient for Salvation: Natural revelation does not, and cannot, provide the knowledge necessary for salvation.25 It reveals God as the powerful Creator and Judge, but it does not disclose His plan of redemption through Jesus Christ, the nature of grace and mercy, the forgiveness of sins, or the specific truths required for entering into a saving relationship with Him. As some summaries put it, general revelation informs but does not transform; it can lead to condemnation but not to justification.25
Limited Content: The content of natural revelation is restricted. While it points to God's power and divinity (theiotēs), it does not reveal the fullness of His character or essence (theotēs).10 Attributes central to the Christian understanding of God, such as His love, holiness, mercy, and triune nature, are not clearly discernible solely through observing creation.10
Impact of Sin: As previously discussed, the human capacity to receive and correctly interpret natural revelation is severely compromised by sin (the noetic effects of sin).23 Even though the revelation itself is clear, human hearts are darkened (Rom 1:21), and the truth is actively suppressed (Rom 1:18). This leads to distortion, misinterpretation, and the exchange of the truth for lies, culminating in idolatry rather than true worship.32 The limitation, therefore, lies significantly in the fallen state of the receiver, not just in the revelation itself.
The Necessity of Special Revelation: Precisely because of these limitations, Christian theology affirms the necessity of Special Revelation. This refers to God's specific, direct disclosures of Himself and His redemptive purposes, primarily through the history of Israel, the inspired writings of Scripture (the Bible), and supremely in the person and work of Jesus Christ.23 Special revelation provides the specific knowledge of God's character, His plan of salvation, the identity of Jesus Christ, and the way to reconciliation that is absent in natural revelation.
It is necessary for knowing God savingly and for understanding His will for humanity.32 The theological maxim "grace perfects nature" applies here; special revelation builds upon, clarifies, and fulfills what is only partially glimpsed through natural revelation.44
Relationship Between General and Special Revelation: These two forms of revelation are not typically seen as contradictory but as complementary, albeit unequal in scope and purpose.26 General revelation provides a universal, foundational awareness of God as Creator, establishing accountability.30 Special revelation builds upon this foundation, providing the specific, detailed, and salvific knowledge of God as Redeemer.30
Special revelation (Scripture) can also serve to correctly interpret the ambiguous or easily distorted testimony of general revelation.32 While both reveal God, special revelation is considered clearer, more extensive, and ultimately necessary for a true and saving knowledge of God.31
The distinction between the content and sufficiency of natural versus special revelation is theologically crucial. It allows for the affirmation of universal divine judgment based on the universally accessible knowledge of God's power and divinity revealed in creation (theiotēs), as Romans 1:20 demands. Simultaneously, it maintains the Christian conviction that salvation and a full knowledge of God's character and redemptive love are available only through the specific, historical revelation culminating in Jesus Christ (special revelation), which reveals the fullness of the Godhead (theotēs, Col 2:9).20 This framework upholds both God's universal justice and the particularity of salvation history.
The doctrine of the noetic effects of sin serves as a vital explanatory link between the objective clarity of natural revelation ("clearly seen") and its practical limitations in fallen humanity. It explains why this clear testimony fails to produce universal worship and gratitude, instead leading to suppression and idolatry (Rom 1:21ff). The fault lies not primarily in the inadequacy of the created order's witness for its intended purpose (accountability), but in the cognitive and moral brokenness of humanity, which prevents the proper reception and response to that witness.23 This underscores the need for divine grace, mediated through special revelation and the work of the Holy Spirit, to overcome sin's blinding effects and enable a true knowledge of God.
Table: Comparison of Natural (General) and Special Revelation
9. Conclusion: The Enduring Dialogue of Creation and Cognition
Romans 1:20 stands as a powerful and enduring statement about the relationship between God, creation, and human understanding. The analysis undertaken in this report confirms that the verse asserts a clear, universal, and continuous revelation of God's fundamental attributes—specifically His "eternal power and Godhead"—through the observable created order. This natural revelation is presented by Paul as being sufficiently clear and intellectually accessible ("clearly seen, being understood") to render all humanity accountable for acknowledging the Creator, thus leaving everyone "without excuse" for failing to do so.
However, the immediate context within Romans 1 simultaneously highlights the tragedy of the human response: this clear revelation is actively suppressed and distorted due to sin. This leads to a crucial distinction between the objective clarity of God's self-disclosure in nature and the subjective limitations imposed by the fallen human condition—the noetic effects of sin. Consequently, while natural revelation suffices for universal accountability, it proves insufficient for bringing humanity into a saving relationship with God. This underscores the theological necessity of special revelation, culminating in Jesus Christ and recorded in Scripture, to reveal God's redemptive character and plan fully.
Exploring the cognitive mechanisms by which the invisible might be perceived via the visible reveals a fascinating convergence of theological, philosophical, and scientific perspectives.
Traditional theological and philosophical tools like reason, analogy, intuition, pattern recognition, and the concept of an innate sensus divinitatis offer frameworks for how the mind engages with creation to apprehend divine truths. Insights from cognitive science regarding agency detection (HADD) and teleological perception suggest potential underlying cognitive biases or predispositions that might contribute to the widespread human tendency to perceive intention and design in the world, phenomena that resonate with the claims of natural revelation, albeit interpreted through different explanatory lenses.
These various tools—rational, intuitive, and perhaps even evolved biases—may work in concert, providing multiple pathways through which the testimony of creation can impress itself upon the human mind, fulfilling the conditions for the universal awareness Paul describes.
The enduring significance of Romans 1:20 lies in its grounding of universal human accountability in the very fabric of creation. It posits a cosmos that is not silent but speaks eloquently of its Maker. It challenges humanity to engage intellectually and spiritually with the evidence presented in "the things that are made." It fuels the ongoing dialogue between faith and reason, theology and science, concerning the origins of the universe and the nature of human cognition.
Ultimately, Romans 1:20 makes a profound claim: the natural world is a perpetual witness, constantly pointing beyond itself to the eternal power and divine nature of the Creator. Truly understanding this witness, however, requires not only the engagement of our cognitive faculties but also an openness of heart that overcomes the inherent human tendency to suppress the truth revealed in the grandeur and intricacy of all that God has made.
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Introduction by Josh Tenenbaum
Josh Tenenbaum introduces Judy Fan, highlighting her as a leading cognitive scientist with a
background in neuroscience, visual psychophysics, and computational neuroscience. He
emphasizes her creative research on the cognitive tools that make us uniquely human, such as
artistic and narrative expression, and her rigorous approach to complex cognitive processes .
> "Judy is one of my favorite cognitive scientists really of any age. I think she's definitely one of
the leading... rising or glowing superstars of our field. She's won a number of awards... But none
of that really is-- that's not the reason that we invited her. I think of Judy as one of the most
creative researchers I know of any stage in any field..."
Judy Fan's Talk: Cognitive Tools and Human Innovation
Judy Fan begins by expressing gratitude for the introduction and the opportunity to speak at
MIT. She explains that her lab studies cognitive tools-technologies and representations that
humans have invented to extend their thinking and learning capabilities .
She uses the example of the number line and Cartesian coordinates, noting that these were
human inventions, not natural phenomena, and have become foundational to mathematics and
science education worldwide. She asks what it is about the human mind that enables such
continual innovation .
> "Nature didn't give us the number line. We invented it. So as the Spanish architect Antoni
Gaudí once put it, there are no straight lines or sharp corners in nature, but that didn't stop us.
We created them anyway..."
Judy traces the history of cognitive tools from cave paintings to modern diagrams and data
visualizations, illustrating how humans have always marked their environments to make the
invisible visible. She discusses examples such as Darwin's finch illustrations, Galileo's telescopic
drawings, Ramón y Cajal's neural sketches, and Feynman diagrams, highlighting the role of
visual abstraction in communicating complex ideas .
> "The story of human learning and discovery is deeply intertwined with the story of
technologies for making the invisible visible..."
transcribe https://youtu.be/AF3XJT9YKpM
- Summary and Partial Transcript: "MIT Quest for Intelligence: BCS Colloquium with
Judy Fan" March 20, 2025
Framework for Understanding Cognitive Tools
Judy presents a schematic for understanding how cognitive psychology traditionally focuses on
how people process information from the external world, and how this is enriched by considering
social cognition and the use of cognitive tools or technologies-material objects that encode
information to impact our minds .
She argues for the importance of considering both the scientific and engineering aspects of
cognition: how we discover useful abstractions and how we apply them to create new things .
> "Research in my group aims to close this loop to develop psychological theories that explain
how we go about discovering useful abstractions that explain how the world works jointly with
theories that explain how we then apply those abstractions to go make new things..."
Part 1 Visual Abstraction and Communication
Judy introduces three behaviors that build on each other:
She discusses the debate over whether drawings are meaningful because they resemble real-
world objects or because their meanings are learned by convention. Her research, using neural
networks trained on photographs, suggests that resemblance plays a strong role, as these
models can generalize to sparse sketches .
> "We discovered that general purpose vision algorithms... were capable of generalizing fairly
strongly to even quite sparse sketches that didn't look photo-realistic per se, suggesting that
the problem of pictorial meaning and resemblance might be resolved simply by building better
models of the ventral stream of visual processing..."
She also describes recent work with neural networks that map sketch elements to corresponding
photo elements, finding that strong spatial constraints govern how sketches correspond to real
objects .
If you need a more detailed breakdown of a specific section or a summary of the remainder of
the talk, please specify the time range or topic of interest.
Visual perception: transforming sensory input into meaningful experiences.
Visual production: generating markings that leave a meaningful trace.
Visual communication: arranging graphical elements to impact other minds .1
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AF3XJT9YKpM-
I. Introduction: The Importance of Greek Terminology
A deeper understanding of Romans 1:20 necessitates a close examination of the specific Greek terms employed by Paul and their theological implications.
II. Key Greek Terms and Their Meanings
A. "Invisible things" (ta aorata)
Refers to God's attributes, characteristics, or perfections.
Inaccessible to direct physical sight due to God's spiritual nature.
Contrasts with the visible, tangible creation ("things that are made").
Known indirectly or inferentially.
B. "From the creation of the world" (apo ktiseōs kosmou)
Indicates a temporal starting point: continuous revelation from the beginning of the cosmos.
Also suggests the means of revelation: knowledge of God derived from creation.
C. "Clearly seen" (kathoratai)
Intensified form of "to see" (horaō), emphasizing clarity and plainness.
God's invisible attributes are objectively and plainly perceptible through creation.
Revelation is unambiguous and evident.
D. "Being understood" (nooumena)
Participle of "to understand" (noeō): intellectual apprehension.
Grasping God's attributes requires active cognitive engagement.
Not merely passive observation, but active intellectual reflection.
E. "By the things that are made" (tois poiēmasin)
Refers to God's works, creations, handiwork (the observable universe).
Encompasses both the initial act of creation and God's ongoing providence.
Created things serve as the medium through which the nature of the invisible Cause is discerned.
F. "Eternal power" (hē te aidios autou dynamis)
First specified attribute: God's power (dynamis).
Qualified as "eternal" (aidios): everlasting, unending, inexhaustible.
Inferred from the existence, magnitude, complexity, and sustenance of the cosmos.
Contrasts the Creator's unlimited nature with the limited, contingent nature of creation.
G. "Godhead" (theiotēs)
Second specified attribute: theiotēs.
Refers to the quality of divinity, divine nature.
Distinguishes God from all created beings.
Signifies the sum of God's attributes that constitute His divinity.
Distinction between theiotēs (divine quality/nature) and theotēs (Godhood, essence of Deity).
Romans 1:20 reveals God's divine quality, not the fullness of His divine essence or specific identity (e.g., the Trinity).
H. "So that they are without excuse" (eis to einai autous anapologētous)
States the purpose and consequence of the clear revelation.
Anapologētos means "without defense" or "without apology."
Humanity has no justifiable defense for failing to acknowledge, worship, and thank God.
Implies legal culpability before God's judgment.
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